The traditional form of the
Christian cross, known as
the Latin cross.

With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents, Christianity is the world's largest religion. Its origins are intertwined with Judaism, with which it shares much sacred text and early history; specifically, it shares the Hebrew Bible, known in the Christian context as the Old Testament. Christianity is considered an Abrahamic religion, along with Judaism and .

In the Christian scriptures, the name "Christian" (thus "Christianity") is first attested in Acts 11:25-27:

"²⁵ So Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for Saul, ²⁶ and when he had found him, he brought him to Antioch. For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch the disciples were first called Christians."

• Protestantism: Numerous denominations and groups such as Anglicans, Baptists, Lutherans, Reformed, Evangelical, Charismatic, Presbyterians, Methodists, Anabaptists, and Pentecostals. The oldest of these groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. The later groups typically formed as separations from the older ones. Some Protestants identify themselves simply as Christian, or born-again Christian. Others, particularly among Anglicans and in Neo-Lutheranism, identify themselves as being "both Catholic and Protestant". Worldwide the total is just under 500 million.

   

• Catholicism: The Roman Catholic Church, the largest single body — which includes several Eastern Catholic communities — as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the Old-Catholics), with more than 1 billion baptized members.

   

• Eastern Christianity: Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Eastern Orthodox Churches, with a combined membership of more than 240 million baptized members.

These broad divisions do not themselves encompass unanimity. On the contrary, some branches contain vast internal disagreements, while in other cases the divisions overlook strong sympathies between and among the groups. Nevertheless, this tends to be the standard overview of distinctions, especially as viewed in the Western world (see also Christian worldview).

Diversity

Enormous diversity of belief exists among Christians. Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology

(see also Early Christianity, history of Christianity, timeline of Christianity, doctrine).

Triune God

The “ Hospitality of Abraham ” by
Andrei Rublev: The three angels
represent the three persons of God
(larger image)

1. God the Father,
2. The Son (Jesus) , and
3. The Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).

The Trinity is a Christian doctrine, stating that God is one Being Who exists, simultaneously and eternally, as a mutual indwelling of three persons: God the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit. Since the 4th century, in both Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, this doctrine has been stated as " three persons in one God," all three of whom, as distinct and co-eternal persons, are of one indivisible divine essence, a simple being. The doctrine also teaches that the Son himself has two distinct natures, one fully divine and the other fully human, united in a hypostatic union (see also Jesus as man, Jesus as God). Support of the doctrine of the Trinity is known as Trinitarianism. Most denominations within Christianity are Trinitarian, and regard belief in the Trinity as a mark of Christian orthodoxy.

Opposing nontrinitarian positions held by some groups include Binitarianism (two deities/persons/aspects), Unitarianism (one deity/person/aspect), the Godhead (Latter Day Saints) (three separate beings, one in purpose) and Modalism (Oneness).

Historically, the post-New Testament doctrine of Trinitarianism is of particular importance. The conflict with Arianism, as well as other competing theological concepts during the fourth century, became the first major doctrinal confrontation in Church history. It had a particularly lasting effect within the Western Roman Empire where the Germanic Arians and Nicene Christians formed a segregated social order.

Messiah

Most Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Messiah who was promised in Old Testament Bible prophecy.

Jesus Christ as God

Crucifixion and Resurrection

Jesus' crucifixion as portrayed
by Diego Velázquez

Crucifixion

Crucifixion was used by the Romans until about 313 AD, when Christianity became the dominant faith in Rome^[]. However, it has been used in various places in modern times.

Details of crucifixion

Usually, its purpose was to provide a particularly painful, gruesome, humiliating, and public death, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Widely different crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period.

The most widely known, and historically verified, crucifixion in the history of the human race was that of Jesus of Nazareth. Not only historians, but other great minds such as Mahatma Gandhi accepted the crucifixion of Jesus as a fact.

"He who when being killed bears no anger against his murderer and even asks God to forgive him is truly non-violent. History relates this of Jesus Christ. With his dying breath on the Cross, he is reported to have said, 'Father, forgive them for they know not what to do.'" -Mahatma Gandhi, Indian political leader (1869-1948)

-Gandhi vs. Christ Editorial by Fr. Benny Aguiar, in the Examiner, the official organ of the 'Mumbai' diocese of the New Church, 26th September 1992.

This following passage from the the book of Isaiah was written approximately 700 years before the birth of Jesus. It is found in Jewish Bibles today, though it is left out of the weekly synagogue readings, as are many other texts of the Bible. When people read Isaiah 53 without knowing which part of the Bible it comes from, they often wrongly assume is from the New Testament. Did Isaiah foresee the crucifixion of Jesus? Though many modern rabbis --and some ancient rabbis-- say the sufferings described are those of the nation of Israel, most ancient rabbis said it refers to Messiah's sufferings. Read it for yourself.

¹ Who hath believed our report? and to whom is the arm of the LORD revealed?

²For he shall grow up before him as a tender plant, and as a root out of a dry ground: he hath no form nor comeliness; and when we shall see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him.

³ He is despised and rejected of men; a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief: and we hid as it were our faces from him; he was despised, and we esteemed him not.

⁴Surely he hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows: yet we did esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted.

⁵ But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed.

⁶ All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every one to his own way; and the LORD hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.

⁷ He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth: he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth.

⁸ He was taken from prison and from judgment: and who shall declare his generation? for he was cut off out of the land of the living: for the transgression of my people was he stricken.

⁹ And he made his grave with the wicked, and with the rich in his death; because he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his mouth.

¹⁰ Yet it pleased the LORD to bruise him; he hath put him to grief: when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin, he shall see his seed, he shall prolong his days, and the pleasure of the LORD shall prosper in his hand.

¹¹ He shall see of the travail of his soul, and shall be satisfied: by his knowledge shall my righteous servant justify many; for he shall bear their iniquities.

¹² Therefore will I divide him a portion with the great, and he shall divide the spoil with the strong; because he hath poured out his soul unto death: and he was numbered with the transgressors; and he bare the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors. - Isaiah 53 (KJV)
authorship dated 740-701 BC

Some prophecies from Isaiah 53 and their fulfillments

Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was scourged. After this the victim was dressed again, and if able was made to drag the stake to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it, or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, the crux simplex of Justus Lipsius, a single stake was used.

The other method is described in the New Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus. In such a case, after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in deciding this.

It is not quite clear which of these two plans was followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that he was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion which depict him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary offering of himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted, however, that among the Emblems of the Passion, as they are called, and which were very favorite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails, spear, and other related items.

Cross shape

Men weep, and bewail their lot, and curse Cadmus with many curses for introducing Tau into the family of letters; they say it was his body that tyrants took for a model, his shape that they imitated, when they set up structures on which men are crucified. Stauros (cross) the vile engine is called, and it derives its vile name from him. Now, with all these crimes upon him, does he not deserve death, nay, many deaths? For my part I know none bad enough but that supplied by his own shape — that shape which he gave to the gibbet named stauros after him by men.

For reasons of simplicity, a single, upright wooden pole (crux simplex), with no transom at all, was also often used for ancient ordeals similar to crucifixion; the original Greek word for "cross" (stauros) is understood to indicate a simple upright pole or stake. On such, malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun, and the verb staurein, "to fasten to a stake or cross", are distinct from the ecclesiastical symbol of the two-beamed "cross". By the middle of the 3rd century AD, pagans received into the churches sometimes retained their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, with the cross-piece lowered, is said to have been adopted to stand for the cross of Christ. Of course, this theory that the cross symbol was adopted purely as a symbol from pagan practice completely overlooks all the archaeological and literary evidence discussed elsewhere in this article, that actual crosses were indeed used as a very real means of execution.

Location of the nails

The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones (which is the location shown in the Shroud of Turin).

Another possibility, suggested by Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the carpal tunnel.

A sedile, or a foot-rest, was often attached to the cross, for the purpose of taking the man's weight off the wrists. This was most likely a simple peg or slab of wood, upon which the man would rest the feet.

Cause of death

A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He conjectured that when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw himself up by his arms, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. Indeed, Roman executioners were said to break the victim's legs, after he had hung for some time, in order to hasten his death. Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself, the victim would die within a few minutes.

If death did not come from asphyxiation, it could result from a number of other causes, including physical shock caused by the scourging that preceded the crucifixion, and the nailing itself, dehydration, and exhaustion.

Experiments by Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified victim's legs to hasten death, mentioned in the Gospel accounts, was done in order to cause severe traumatic shock or death by fat embolism, and only as a coup de grace. Crucifixion on a single pole with no transom, with hands affixed over one's head, would precipitate rapid asphyxiation if no block was provided to stand on, or once the legs were broken.

Archeological evidence for ancient crucifixion

The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man’s name on it, “Yehohanan, the son of Hagakol.” The ossuary contained a heel with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the heels may have been driven through the sides of the tree (one on the left side, one on the right side, and not with both feet together in front). The nail had olive wood on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olivewood or on an olive tree. Since olive trees are not very tall, this would suggest that victims were crucified at eye level. His legs were found broken.

Important references for the ancient practice of crucifixion and an examination of archeological evidence:

History of crucifixion

Persia and Alexander

Roman Empire

Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. In Roman style crucifixion, the victim took days to die slowly from suffocation—lack of oxygen caused by the victim's blood-supply slowly draining, eventually to a quantity insufficient to supply the required oxygen to vital organs. The dead body was not removed from the cross but was left there for vultures and other birds to consume.

The goal of Roman crucifixion was not just to kill the criminal, but also to mutilate and dishonour the body of the condemned. In ancient tradition, an honourable death required burial; leaving a body on the cross so as to mutilate it and prevent its burial, was a grave dishonour for the person.

Under ancient Roman penal practice, crucifixion was not only a means of execution, but also a means of exhibiting the criminal’s low social status. It was the most dishonourable death imaginable. The elite of Roman society (only about 10% of the population) were almost never subject to corporal punishments; instead, they were fined or exiled. Josephus mentions Jews of high rank who were crucified, but this was to point out that their status had been taken away from them. Control of one’s own body was vital in the ancient world. Capital punishment took away control over one’s own body, thereby implying a loss of status and honour. The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death. Burial afterwards was not usually permitted.

A common prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The prisoner then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) was sometimes permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked -- the New Testament gospels, dated to around the same time as Josephus, describe soldiers gambling for the robes of Jesus.

The "nails" were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 in. (13 to 18 cm) long, with a square shaft 3/8 in. (1 cm) across. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets.

Emperor Constantine the Great, the first Emperor known to receive a Christian baptism, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire at the end of his reign.

It was however possible to survive crucifixion, and there are records of people who did.

Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate

In 1597, twenty-six Christians were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were Paul Miki and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines.

Modern death on the cross

Execution by crucifixion, while rare in recent times, was used at Dachau during the Holocaust and in a number of wars, such as in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge and during the Sino-Japanese war, where it was among the many methods of torture and execution used by Japanese soldiers against Chinese civilians—largely in emulation of medieval Japanese military practices. During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified an Allied (Canadian) soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the Canadian First Division.

There are persistent stories that crucifixions continue to occur in certain parts of Africa, particularly in Sudan. According to reports, hundreds if not thousands of Christian Sudanese have been nailed to crude crosses on the plains, in remote areas where access by reporters and Western witnesses is limited. Al Jazeera reported in 2002 of the crucifixion of 32 Christian priests and other males, some as young as their early teens. They were allegedly whipped severely and affixed to crosses with six-inch nails through their hands, ankles, and genitals. Other reports suggest that crucifixion has been making a comeback in such fundamentalist Muslim nations as Nigeria and Yemen.

Modern crucifixions without death

Crucifixion as a devotional practice

Devotional crucifixions are also common in the Philippines, even driving nails through the hands (e.g. a man vowed to do it 15 times after a difficult childbirth). In San Pedro Cutad, devotee Ruben Enaje has been crucified 18 times, as of 2004, during Passion Week celebrations.

In many cases the person portraying Jesus is previously subjected to flagellation (e.g. flailing) and/or wears a crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh.

Famous crucifixions

• Jesus of Nazareth: The most well known victim of crucifixion in history, Jesus was condemned to crucifixion (cira 33 A.D.) by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, at the instigation of the Jewish leaders who were scandalized by his claim to being the Messiah and his disdain for their religious traditions.
• Spartacus' revolt: Spartacus himself most likely died in battle, but approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200 km road between Capua and Rome circa 71 BC, as a warning to any other would-be rebels.
• Saint Peter, Christian apostle: according to tradition, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request, as he did not feel worthy to die the same way as Jesus (for he had denied him three times previously). Note that upside-down crucifixion would not result in death from asphyxiation.
• Saint Andrew, Christian apostle: according to tradition, crucified on an X-shaped cross, hence the name St. Andrew's Cross
• Archbishop Joachim of Nizhny Novgorod: crucified upside down, on the Royal Doors of the Cathedral in Sevastopol, Ukrainian SSR in 1920

According to the Gospels, Joseph of Arimathea was the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus was crucified.

Resurrection

Resurrection accounts

The New Testament

Jesus Christ as Salvation

Most Christians interpret salvation to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency. The question of "who is saved" has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though most Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether or not one has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior.

Second Coming

The Afterlife

It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection —whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the soul, survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that those who practiced good things will be resurrected to life and those who practiced vile things to a resurrection of judgment.

Nicene Creed

Central Christian beliefs put forth in the Nicene Creed include:

• The Trinity;
• Jesus is both God and man;
• Salvation is available through the person, life and death of Jesus Christ;
• The virgin birth, crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, and Second Coming of Jesus;
• One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church;
• The forgiveness of sins through baptism;
• The resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment by Christ.

See Nicene Creed

Authority and different parts of the Bible

The New Church or Swedenborgian view of which scripture is to be included in canon is distinctly different from every other Christian institution. The belief held is that some of the books of the Bible have a continuous internal sense or correspondence, while others do not. Those which are seen to have direct correspondence with spiritual truth are viewed as the Word of God, the remaining are then seen as useful books for the Church, some of which are flawed in their understanding, such as the epistles of Paul.

Most Christians regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by Gideons International, Wycliffe Bible Translators, Jehovah's Witnesses and others.

Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the Bible, including the Old Testament and the New Testament. Differences exist in the canons of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the Deuterocanonical books used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches but rejected by Protestants as Apocrypha. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly. More theologically significant is the Swedenborgian churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.

Whereas Jews see the Torah as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by Gideons International, Wycliffe Bible Translators and others.

Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. "Biblical literalism" or "Christian fundamentalism" describe well-known conservative Christianity hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism.

Interpretation

The earliest schools of Biblical interpretation were the Alexandrine, and the Antiochene. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation insisted on the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.

Traditional Catholic and Orthodox interpretation admits four senses of Scripture. The literal sense is the plain meaning (which would still take account of figures of speech), so that a reference to David means the historical figure. The allegorical or typological sense teaches Christian doctrine, so that a reference to David may mean Christ. The tropological or moral sense contains ethical teaching, and the anagogical or eschatological sense teaches about the Last Things. The meanings derived from the three non-literal senses may also be stated literally elsewhere.

Protestantism rejects the elevation of other senses to the same level as the literal, although typology remains fairly common in Protestant interpretation.

Catholics, the Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as having been produced by one phase (albeit formative) of the development of church tradition, or "Holy Tradition." This Holy Tradition has been established and perpetuated through the decisions of the ecumenical councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, the lives and teachings of the saints, liturgical practice, sacred art, and papal statements (for Roman Catholics), and is thought to be alive today. Indeed, one Orthodox theologian has characterized Holy Tradition as "the voice of the Holy Spirit in the Church."

Protestants, meanwhile, tend to strongly reject portions of "Holy Tradition" while readily accepting other portions. Most Protestants tend to accept Martin Luther's dictum of sola scriptura, which sees the Bible as the ultimate, or only, source of faith and doctrine. Protestantism also assumes that any Christian believer is capable of rightly interpreting the Bible. Even Protestants concede that this view raises difficulties, especially given the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some arguable claim to biblical warrant and, based on these divergences, because Protestantism has spawned such a large variety of denominations and traditions.

Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven sacraments or "mysteries." These include baptism, the Eucharist (communion), matrimony, Holy Orders, confirmation or Chrismation, penance and reconciliation, and the Anointing of the Sick.

Many Protestant groups, following Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not usually the other five in the same way. Anabaptist and Brethren groups would add feet washing. Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Holiness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such as spiritual healing, prophecy, exorcism, and speaking in tongues. These emphases are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.

In general, Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.

Virtually all Christian traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as prayer, Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle. This lifestyle includes not only obedience to the Ten Commandments, as interpreted by Christ (as in the Sermon on the Mount), but also love for one's neighbor in both attitude and action — whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love toward God; which includes obedience to such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the Holy Spirit, who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection, they die with Him to sin and can be resurrected with Him to new life.

Christianity began within the Jewish religion among the followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the leadership of the Apostles Peter and Paul, it opened up early to Gentiles, gradually distinguishing itself from and parting ways with Rabbinical Judaism. Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own. Among Gentile Christians, separated by geography, a great diversity existed, but a church hierarchy seems to have developed, at least by the time of the writing of the Pastoral Epistles, and was certainly formalized by the 3rd century.

Christianity spread across the Mediterranean Basin, enduring persecution by Roman Emperors (see the Roman Empire). As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into contact with Greek philosophy, which would become a significant influence on Christian thought. Early Christian theologians such as Origen worked to create a synthesis between Greek philosophy, especially Platonism, and Christianity, developing a distinctively Christian theology. Christian teachers sought to distinguish their faith from other religious beliefs of the day, notably Gnosticism (some sects of which were strongly influenced by Christian ideas) and Mithraism. Various elements of the contemporary pagan religion, particularly the mystery cults, may have been absorbed into Christianity, although scholars differ as to the level of influence thus exerted.

Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine the Great legalized Christianity. Flavius Theodosius established it as the official religion of The Roman Empire near the end of the century. From that time onwards, the history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from the cultural and political history of Europe and surrounding regions, as the Church took on some of the political and cultural unifying role previously held by the Roman pagan institutions. The Roman Empire, having become Christian, now suppressed both the old pagan cults and those forms of Christianity which the Church had condemned as heretical. After the religion's legalization, doctrinal disputes, especially regarding Christology, intensified, leading to internal strife and the attempt to reach clearer dogmatic definitions through ecumenical councils. Various forms of monasticism also developed, beginning in the early fourth century.

The Christian Church of the Roman Empire was broadly divided into the Latin-speaking West, centered on Rome, and the Greek-speaking East, centred on Constantinople, with significant communities also in Egypt and Syria. Outside the borders of the Empire, Christianity was adopted in a number of realms such as Armenia and Ethiopia, and also spread to Persia and India, and among Celtic tribes. During the Migration Period, various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first the Arian creed was widespread (as among Goths and Vandals), but later Catholic Christianity prevailed, beginning with the Franks. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted the Byzantine form of Christianity (e.g. Russia in 988). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes divided the Eastern and Western parts of the Christian Roman Empire and resulted in the Great Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which effectively divided Christendom into the Catholic West and the Orthodox East.

From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by Islam, which quickly conquered the Middle East and Northern Africa (see Africa). Numerous military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and the eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire and south-eastern Europe by the Turks.

Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the Pope and the development of scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontentment with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The Roman Catholic Church (see Catholicism) managed to renew itself at the Council of Trent (1545-1563, but only after the 95 theses was published in 1517 by Martin Luther. This was one of the key events of the Protestant Reformation which was to result in the emergence of numerous denominations. During the following centuries, the competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with the struggle among European states for political dominance, while many of the Orthodox Churches found themselves under non-Christian rulers. Partly as a result of missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity in its various forms spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European Enlightenment took hold, Christianity was also confronted with the discoveries of science (including the heliocentric model and the theory of evolution), and with the development of biblical criticism and modern political ideologies such as Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of Ecumenism, the Charismatic Movement, and Fundamentalist Christianity.

For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and world culture, see:

Christian philosophy

Christian art

Christian literature

Christian music

Christian architecture

There was some persecution of Christians after the French Revolution during the attempted Dechristianisation. State oppression of Christians today is generally associated with Muslim or Communist countries. For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and regularly cracks down on house churches or underground Catholics, and the public practice of Christianity is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today. Some people cite anti-abortion (see abortion) violence in the United States and the ongoing "troubles" in Northern Ireland as examples of 'persecution by Christians', despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of discrimination have also been made of and by Christians in various contexts.

Christianity began within the Jewish religion among the followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the leadership of the Apostles Peter and Paul, it welcomed Gentiles, and gradually separated from Pharisaic Judaism. Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own, while others were joined with Gentile Christians in the development of the church; within both groups there existed great diversity of belief. Professor Bentley Layton writes, "the lack of uniformity in ancient Christian scripture in the early period is very striking, and it points to the substantial diversity within the Christian religion." A church hierarchy seems to have developed by the time of the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim 3, Titus 1) and was certainly formalized by the 4th century.

Christianity spread across the Mediterranean Basin, enduring persecution by the Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into increased contact with Hellenistic culture (see Hellenistic civilization); Greek philosophy, especially Neoplatonism, became a significant influence on Christian thought through theologians such as Origen. Scholars differ on the extent to which the developing Christian faith adopted identifiably pagan beliefs.

Theological disputes about the correct interpretation of Christian teaching led to internal conflicts; the various churches of Early Christianity shared a common creed, but actual beliefs varied widely. By the third century, councils were regularly held in provincial capitals to distinguish between orthodox (which literally translates to "right thinking") and heretical (or wrong) views. On May 20th, 325, the newly converted Roman Emperor Constantine I convened the First Council of Nicaea to establish a unity of doctrine by means of debate and discussion among some 220 Bishops, including v. Prior to Nicaea, churches did not simply obey Rome and its interpretations, which the Eastern churches still did not. Constantine continued to authoritively control church policy for the rest of his life, forcing unity amongst the various churches. After Arianism, the primary target at Nicaea, was declared heretical other Chrstian sects began to be declared heretical as well. These were to include Gnosticism, Simonianism, Marcionism, Ebionitism and Montanism. Such disputes, especially in the field of Christology, intensified after the religion's legalization. Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine the Great legalized Christianity, giving the church a privileged place in society, and in 391 Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as the official and, except for Judaism, only legal religion of the Roman Empire. From Constantine onwards, the history of Christianity becomes difficult to untangle from the history of Europe. The Church took over many of the political and cultural roles of the pagan Roman institutions, especially in Europe. The Emperors, seeking unity through the new religion, frequently took part in Church matters, sometimes in concord with the bishops but also against them. Imperial authorities acted to suppress the old pagan cults and groups deemed heretical by the Church, most notably, Arians. The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that "various penal laws were enacted by the Christian emperors against heretics as being guilty of crime against the State. In both the Theodosian and Justinian codes they were styled infamous persons .. In some particularly aggravated cases sentence of death was pronounced upon heretics, though seldom executed in the time of the Christian emperors of Rome."

Various forms of Christian monasticism developed, with the organization of the first monastic communities being attributed to the hermit St Anthony of Egypt around 300. The monastic life spread to many parts of the Christian empire during the 4th and 5th centuries, as many felt that the Christian moral and spiritual life was compromised by the change from a persecuted minority cult to an established majority religion, and sought to regain the purity of early faith by fleeing society.

The Christian Church of the Roman Empire divided into the Latin-speaking west, centered in Rome, and the Greek-speaking east, centered in Constantinople. (There were also significant communities in Egypt and Syria.) Outside the Empire, Christianity was adopted in Armenia, Caucasian Iberia (now Georgia), Ethiopia, Persia, India, and among the Celtic tribes. During the Migration Period, various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first Arianism was widespread (as among Goths and Vandals), but later Roman Catholicism prevailed, beginning with the Franks. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted Orthodox Christianity, as in the Baptism of Kievan Rus' (988) in Rus' (present-day Russia and Ukraine). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in the Great Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which formally divided Christendom into the Catholic west and the Orthodox east.

From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by Islam, which quickly conquered the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Spain. Numerous military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and the eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire and southeastern Europe by the Turks.

Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the Pope, and by the development of scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The Roman Catholic Church managed to renew itself at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), but only after Martin Luther published his 95 theses in 1517. This was one of the key events of the Protestant Reformation which led to the emergence of Christian denominations. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states, while many Orthodox Christians found themselves living under Muslim rulers.

Partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European Enlightenment took hold, Christianity was confronted with the discoveries of science (including the heliocentric model and the theory of evolution), and with the development of biblical criticism (linked to the development of Christian Fundamentalism) and modern political ideologies such as Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism. In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of Ecumenism and the Charismatic Movement.

Ecumenism

Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and the Lutheran and Catholic churches signing The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006 the Methodist church adopted the declaration.

Figures

In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades. Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina, Bolivia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Vatican City, Cyprus, Republic of Moldova, Greece, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Finland and Great Britain.

Persecution

Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, have destroyed pagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations, and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into religious wars and inquisitions. Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America. The degree to which these acts are supported by formal Christian doctrine and scripture is a topic of much debate.

There was some persecution of Christians after the French Revolution during the attempted Dechristianisation of France. State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as in Muslim states), or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting state atheism (as in North Korea). For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressed house churches or underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today.

Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States and the ongoing "troubles" in Northern Ireland as examples of "persecution by Christians", despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of discrimination have also been made of and by Christians in various other contexts. In other parts of the world, there are persecution of Christians by dominant religious groups or political groups. Many Christians are threatened, discriminated, jailed, or even killed for their faith.

Notes

• The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IX, Monotheism; William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Jonathan Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Linda Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, p. 496-99; David Vincent Meconi, "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity" in Journal of Early Christian Studies, p. 111–12
• BBC, BBC - Religion & Ethics - Christianity
• "between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2006, page xv1.
• "1.5 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441.
• Major Religions Ranked by Size
• Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441.
• Christians believe that Jesus is still alive in heaven, and that, as God, he exists in eternity, hence the use of "is".
• Mortimer Chambers, The Western Experience Volume II chapter 5; The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, p. 158.
• McGrath, Alister E. Christianity:An Introduction, Blackwell Publishing (2006), p. 4-6. ISBN 1405108991.
• Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions:An Introduction for Students. p. 58. Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.
• Acts 11:26
• Elwell, Walter A. & Comfort, Philip Wesley. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, p. 266, 828. Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897.
• J.Z.Smith 98, p. 276.
• Anidjar 2001, p. 3
• Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions:An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press (1997), p. 131. ISBN 1898723486.
• McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990), p. 301–303.
• Olson, Roger E. The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957.
• McGrath, Alister E. Christianity:An Introduction. Pp 4-6. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.
• Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pp 513, 649. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455.
• Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21
• http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed
• Acts 1:9-11
• Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000) IBSN 0849916437 .
• John 19:30–31, Mark 16:1, Mark 16:6
• 1 Cor. 15:6
• Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth & Helwys (2003), p. 13. ISBN 1573123994 .
• 1 Cor. 15:14)
• Ball, Bryan and William Johnsson, editors. The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294.
• John 3:16, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3.
• Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21
• Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55–56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1 Peter 3:22
• Acts 1:9–11
• The Parousia is the term used in the Bible, see Strong's G3952 for details, which includes the Thayer's Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of the advent, i.e.,the future, visible, return from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God." According to the Bauer lexicon: "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age."
• Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology. Pg 11. Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X .
• A Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary."
• Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789.
• Jung, Carl (1971). The Answer to Job. The Portable Jung. Penguin. Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
• title url Soteriology. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
• Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 405 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, Grace and Justification
• Westminster Confession, Chapter X; Charles Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism.
• Richard D. Balge Martin Luther, Augustinian
• J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 87-90.
• T. Desmond Alexander, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, p. 514-515
• Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology p. 61.
• Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg. 782 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
• J.N.D. Kelly, The Athanasian Creed, NY: Harper and Row, 1964.
• Vladimir Lossky; Loraine Boettner
• Theophilus of Antioch Apologia ad Autolycum II 15
• McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 50. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
• Tertullian De Pudicitia chapter 21
• McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 53. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
• von Harnack, Adolf (1894-03-01). History of Dogma. Retrieved on 2007-06-15. “[In the 2nd century,] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)”
• McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 35. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
• MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004), p. 185-187.
• R. Emmet McLaughlin Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-300-03367-2
• Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest & Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2
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• William Arnold, Is Jesus God the Father?
• J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 119-123
• Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship, p. 97-98.
• Doctrine and Covenants 130:22
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108)
• Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God
• Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text
• Keith Mathison The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001)
• PC(USA) - Presbyterian 101 - What is The Bible?
• F.F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture; Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Canon of Scripture § 120
• Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg. 39 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
• Mormon.org, Heavenly Father Reveals His Gospel To All
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible), Book of Mormon, Introduction
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible), The Scriptures, Internet Edition
• J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 69-78.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115-118
• 1 Corinthians 10:2
• Thomas Aquinas"Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"; cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116
• Second Vatican Council Dei Verbum (V.19)
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85
• R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture, p. 45-61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6)
• E.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.3) Matthew Henry interprets the twin-sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see W. Edward Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion
• Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture
• John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14-18
• http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/helvconf.htm Article about Helvetic confessions
• Second Helvetic Confession, Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions
• Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, editors. Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]. Yale University Press 2003 ISBN 0300093896.
• Catholics United for the Faith, "We Believe in One God"; Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism"
• Catholic Encyclopedia, "Council of Ephesus" (1913).
• Matt Slick, Chalcedonian Creed; Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon
• British Orthodox Church, The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon
• Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
• Catholic Encyclopedia, "Athanasian Creed" (1913).
• Our Common Heritage as Christians. The United Methodist Church. Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
• "The History of the Church", Howard A. White
• Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99
• Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25. www.reformed.org. Retrieved on 2008-01-01.
• Spitz, Lewis, The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003) ISBN 0570033209.
• Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII
• Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII
• (13 March 1997) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition. USA: Oxford University Press, 1435-6. ISBN 0–19–211655–X.
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• ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library
• Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX).
• "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" (De Corona, chapter 3)
• Dilasser, Maurice. The Symbols of the Church (1999). Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, hardcover: ISBN 0-8146-2538-x
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• Fortescue, Adrian (1912). Veneration of Images. Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved on 2007-11-26.
• Robinson, George. Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals. New York: Pocket Books, 2000, p. 229.
• Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004), p. 157-158.
• Acts 7:59
• 12:2
• "It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation should continue to the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. .. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches." Halsall, Paul (June 1997). Theodosian Code XVI.i.2. Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions. Fordham University. Retrieved on 2006-09-19.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 243.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 238.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 248-250.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 238-242.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 244-247
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 260
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 260.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 278-281.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 305, 312, 314-15.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 303-307, 310-11, 384-386.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 305, 310-11, 316-317.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 321-323, 365-66.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 292-300.
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
• Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 300, 304-305.
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• The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom
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s, p. 7. ISBN 0662278208.
• Simon, Edith (1966). Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books, p. 39, 55-61. ISBN 0662278208.
• Schama states that Henry's reforms were "a reformation but not the Protestant Reformation."
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• Simon, Edith (1966). Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books, p. 109-120. ISBN 0662278208.
• S. E. Ahlstrom characterized denominationalism in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Roman Catholic church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." Ahlstrom p. 381. For specific citations, on the Roman Catholic Church see the Catechism of the Catholic Church §816; other examples: Donald Nash, Why the Churches of Christ are not a Denomination; Wendell Winkler, Christ's Church is not a Denomination; and David E. Pratt, What does God think about many Christian denominations?
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• c Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents
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• Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to describe "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves — they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." MacCulloch, Reformation p. xxiv
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Further reading

• Gunton, Colin E. (1997). The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47695-X.
• Price, Matthew Arlen; Collins, Michael (1999). The story of Christianity. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0-7513-0467-0.
• Gill, Robin (2001). The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521779189.
• McManners, John (2002). The Oxford history of Christianity. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192803360.
• Padgett, Alan G.; Sally Bruyneel (2003). Introducing Christianity. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. ISBN 1570753954.
• Price, Matthew Arlen; Michael, Father Collins (2003). The Story of Christianity. New York: DK Publishing Inc. ISBN 0789496100.
• Miller, Michael Vincent; Ratzinger, Joseph; Pope Benedict XVI (2004). Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books). San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 1586170295.
• Wagner, Richard (2004). Christianity for Dummies. For Dummies. ISBN 0764544829.
• Webb, Jeffrey B. (2004). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity. Indianapolis, Ind: Alphooks. ISBN 159257176X.
• Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: a very short introduction. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192803220.
• MacMullen, Ramsay (2006). Voting About God in Early Church Councils. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300115962.
• Tucker, Karen; Wainwright, Geoffrey (2006). The Oxford history of Christian worship. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513886-4.

See also: Christian church, Christian

References

General references

• American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin Company (2006).
• Catechism of the Catholic Church.
• Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
• Encyclopedia of Religion.
• New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy.
• editors, Sinclair B. Ferguson, David F. Wright ; consulting editor, J.I. Packer. (1988). Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David. eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. ISBN 0851106366.
• Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom et al. (ed.). World Christian Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press (2001).

  Monographies and articles

  • Ahlstrom, Sydney E.
  • Albright, William F. From the Stone Age to Christianity.
  • Alexander, T. Desmond. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology.
  • Anidjar, 2001.
  • Bahnsen, Greg. A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6).
  • Martin Luther, Augustinian.
  • Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294.
  • Barry, John F. One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. William H. Sadlier (2001). ISBN 0-8215-2207-8
  • Bettenson, Henry (ed.). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1943).
  • Bokenkotter, Thomas. A Concise History of the Catholic Church . Doubleday (2004). ISBN 0385505841
  • Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture.
  • Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). ISBN 0-394-31734-3.
  • Coffey, John. Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689. Pearson Education (2000).
  • Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1997). ISBN 019211655X.
  • Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2.
  • Dilasser, Maurice. The Symbols of the Church. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). ISBN 0-8146-2538-X
  • Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press (1997). ISBN 0-3000-7332-1
  • Elwell, Walter A.; Comfort, Philip Wesley. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897.
  • Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004).
  • Farrar, F.W. Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?". Macmillan, London/New York (1904).
  • Foutz, Scott. Martin Luther and Scripture Martin Luther and Scripture.
  • Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions: An Introduction for Students, Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.
  • Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X.
  • Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church, Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) ISBN=157075375x
  • Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789.
  • Glenny, W. Edward. Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion.
  • Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation, Harper Collins Publishers, New York (1984).
  • Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000). IBSN 0849916437.
  • Harnack, Adolf von. History of Dogma (1894).
  • Hickman, Hoyt L. et al. Handbook of the Christian Year. Abingdon Press (1986). ISBN 0-687-16575-X
  • Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion (2005).
  • Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society (2004) ISBN 0-7922-7313-3
  • Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines.
  • Kelly, J.N.D. The Athanasian Creed. Harper & Row, New York (1964).
  • Kirsch, Jonathan. God Against the Gods.
  • Kreeft, Peter. Catholic Christianity. Ignatius Press (2001) ISBN 0-89870-798-6
  • Letham, Robert. The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship. P & R Publishing (2005). ISBN 0875520006.
  • Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth & Helwys (2003). ISBN 1573123994.
  • McLaughlin, R. Emmet, Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540, New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). ISBN 0-300-03367-2.
  • MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004).
  • Marber, Peter. Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles. FT Press (2003). ISBN 0130654809
  • Marthaler, Berard. Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press (1994). ISBN 0809134950
  • Mathison, Keith. The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001).
  • McClintock, John, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper &Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889)
  • McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.
  • McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology.
  • McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990). IBSN 0198229283.
  • Meconi, David Vincent. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity", in: Journal of Early Christian Studies.
  • Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455.
  • Norman, Edward. The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California (2007) ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6
  • Olson, Roger E., The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957.
  • Orlandis, Jose, A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers (1993) ISBN 1851821252
  • Ott, Ludwig. Grundriß der Dogmatik. Herder, Freiburg (1965).
  • Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. Yale University Press (2003). ISBN 0300093896.
  • Putnam, Robert D. Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society. Oxford University Press (2002).
  • Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).
  • Robinson, George. Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals. New York: Pocket Books (2000).
  • Schama, Simon . A History of Britain. Hyperion (2000). ISBN 0-7868-6675-6.
  • Servetus, Michael. Restoration of Christianity. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007).
  • Simon, Edith. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books (1966). ISBN 0662278208.
  • Smith, J.Z. (1998).
  • Spitz, Lewis. The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003). ISBN 0570033209.
  • Sproul, R.C. Knowing Scripture.
  • Spurgeon, Charles. A Defense of Calvinism.
  • Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. The Study of Anglicanism. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). ISBN 080063151X.
  • Talbott, Thomas. Three Pictures of God in Western Theology" (1995).
  • Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000. Cambridge University Press (2003).
  • White, Howard A. The History of the Church.
  • Woodhead, Linda. An Introduction to Christianity.

  Further reading

  • Gill, Robin (2001). The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521779189.
  • Gunton, Colin E. (1997). The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47695-X.
  • MacMullen, Ramsay (2006). Voting About God in Early Church Councils. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300115962.
  • Padgett, Alan G.; Sally Bruyneel (2003). Introducing Christianity. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. ISBN 1570753954.
  • Price, Matthew Arlen; Collins, Michael (1999). The story of Christianity. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0-7513-0467-0.
  • Ratzinger, Joseph (2004). Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books). San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 1586170295.
  • Tucker, Karen; Wainwright, Geoffrey (2006). The Oxford history of Christian worship. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513886-4.
  • Wagner, Richard (2004). Christianity for Dummies. For Dummies. ISBN 0764544829.
  • Webb, Jeffrey B. (2004). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity. Indianapolis, Ind: Alpha Books. ISBN 159257176X.
  • Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: a very short introduction. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192803220.