Dead Sea Scroll Fragment
(larger image)

The main source of information about the life and belief of Essenes is the detailed account contained in a work of the 1st century Jewish historiographer Josephus entitled The Jewish War written about 73-75 CE (War 2.119-161[2]) and his shorter description in his Antiquities finished some 20 years later (Ant. 18.11 & 18-22[11]). Claiming first hand knowledge (Life §§10-11), he refers to them by the name Essenoi and lists them as the followers of one of the three "choices" in "Jewish Philosophy'" (War 2.119[2]) alongside the Pharisees and the Sadducees.

The only other known contemporary accounts about the Essenes are two similarly detailed ones by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (fl. c. 20 BCE - c. 54 CE; Quod Omnis Probus Liber Sit XII.75-87[12], and the excerpt from his Hypothetica 11.1-18[6] preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea, Praep. Evang. Bk VIII), who, however, admits to not being quite certain of the Greek form of their name that he recalls as Essaioi (Quod Omn. Prob. XII.75[12]), and the brief reference to them by the Roman equestrian Pliny the Elder (fl. 23 CE - 79 CE; Natural History, Bk 5.73).

Qumran settlement ruins, photo taken
by Daniel Maleck Lewy, 2005
(larger image)

The origin of the name Essenes is debated. Some credible possibilities are either a version of the Greek word for "holy", or an Aramaic (see also: Aramaic of Jesus) dialect term for "pious". Geza Vermes, a scholar and writer on religious history, traces the word to the Aramaic "Esaoin", meaning "followers of Esa". Vermes identifies this with Isa, an early name for Jesus; other scholars disagree with this etymology.

Hitherto no ancient texts have been discovered where their authors admit to being themselves followers of the Essene way of religious living, or claim to commit Essene thoughts and doctrine to writing. If, however, the inhabitants of the settlement at Qumran had indeed been Essenes, and if certain scrolls discovered in the caves near Qumran have Essenes for their authors, or at least contain Essene texts, then it may be said from those scrolls that the Essenes referred to themselves as "Sons of Light".

A suggested reconstruction of Qumran
in the Second Temple Period
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Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea. While Pliny's location ("on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast .. [above] the town of Engeda") tends to be cited in support of this identification, there is as yet no conclusive proof for this hypothesis. Nevertheless, it has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes; and this article therefore takes it for its premise.

It has been suggested that the Essenes have come into existence as a protest following the purchase by Yehoshua Ben-Shimon II (Jason son of Simon) of the high priesthood from Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 175 BC. Subsequently the Essenes referred to Yehoshua ben Shimon and his genealogically unqualified successors as The Wicked Priest (Kohein ha-Resha lit. bad priest, instead of Kohein ha-Gadol). However, others have suggested that Queen Salome Alexandra's son John Hyrcanus II (63 BC-?) and the other Roman collaborators that succeeded to him are the best qualified for the Wicked Priest appellation. Either way the new illegitimate priesthood became known as the Sadducees.

It is thought that the memories of a certain Yeshu (110-70) in the Talmud may refer to one who the Essenes called Matif ha-Kaza (the babbling preacher of lies). Likewise the "man of lies" (Ish ha-Kazav) has been identified variously as his contemporary Shimeon ben Shetah (80-50) or the later R. Shammai (40 BC-AD 20). It is thought that to secure the position of Av Beth Din, Shammai drove his predecessor Menahem, his and Hillel's followers to become Essenes. The aged Shammai attained complete ascendancy until AD 30 after Hillel died in AD 20 and Shammai passed the 18 measures. That day is compared to the day when the golden calf was built (Shabbat 17A).

Presuming the identification of the Essenes as the inhabitants of Qumran and as authors of the texts in certain scrolls found in the caves nearby, the Essenes were the followers of a group of priests who had essentially rejected the Second Temple. They argued that the Essene community was itself the new Temple, although they did not reject the notion of the temple outright. Eventually, they believed, they would be triumphant, gaining control of the temple and remaking it according to their own ideals. Accordingly, the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 was for them a symbol of imminent victory. With this came the end of the Sadducees and the end of the house of Shammai. They also believed strongly in the end-times and wrote an entire scroll on that subject. The "Rule of War" detailed the battle plans for the "final" battle.

The accounts by Josephus and Philo of Alexandria show that the Essenes (Philo: Essaioi) led a strictly celibate but communal life − often compared by scholars to Christian monastic living −, although Josephus speaks also of another "rank of Essenes" that did get married (The Wars of the Jews (War) 2.160-161[9]). According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership (War 2.122[1]; Ant. 18.20), elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed (War 2.123, 134), were forbidden from swearing oaths (War 2.135) and sacrificing animals (Philo, §75), controlled their temper and served as channels of peace (War 2.135), carried weapons only as protection against robbers (War 2.125), had no slaves but served each other (Ant. 18.21) and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading (War 2.127). Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations. From what has been deduced, the food of the Essenes was not allowed to be altered (by being cooked, for instance); and they may have been strict vegetarians, eating mostly bread, wild roots and fruits. After a total of three years probation (War 2.137-138), newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practise piety towards the deity and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels (War 2.139-142). Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death (War 2.153-158, Ant. 18.18).

According to the information given by Philo, the closest community comparable to the Essenes is the Jewish Therapeutae known to have lived in Graeco-Roman Egypt. Philo describes the customs of the Jewish Therapeutae of Egypt and the Essenes. He clearly describes the penetration of the Egyptian solar adoration and Pythagorean beliefs to the customs of the Jewish Therapeutae, while Josephus tells about the invocation of the sun by the Essenes and the rules not to defile the rays of the deity (visible rays that can only refer to the Sun) when one is doing the private deeds in wilderness. Common doctrines with solar aspirations between the Jewish Therapeutae of Egypt and the Essenes lead to the common roots with the Jews in exile in Egypt, exemplified in the influence of the Egyptian and Pythagorean calendars. It is also to be emphasized that the only comparable communal texts to the Dead Sea Scrolls have been found in the Geniza of the Caraite synagogue in Cairo in Egypt, which also is another external link to indicate the connections to Egypt. The sun dial found in Qumran follows the skaphion type used by the Pythagorean Aristarchus of Samos in Alexandria. Interestingly Flavius Josephus characterises the Essenes as comparable to the Pythagoreans. One needs to bear in mind that, when the settlement of Qumran dating to the Graeco-Roman period was established, Alexandria was a major city with a number of Jewish residents, and Qumran area was under the rule of the Ptolemies and Seleucids before the Roman occupation.

When the Romans overran Jerusalem in 70 CE, the authors of the writings found at Qumran assumed to have been Essenes believed this to be the time to fight the great and final battle with the Sons of Darkness, as prophesied. They had prepared for it and apparently threw everything they had into it. They may have thought they were unbeatable, according to prophecy; but they were not strong enough to withstand the Romans. The inhabitants of Qumran, presumed to have been the greater number of the Essenes, were destroyed by the Roman legions in 68 CE as part of the Roman movements to take back Judea. It has been suggested that, consequently, the few remaining Essenes elsewhere were no longer able to maintain their identity, and that some of them merged with the Hillelite Pharisees ^*, out of which was born the tradition of Rabbinical Judaism.

The Essenes are discussed in detail by Flavius Josephus and Philo of Alexandria. Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars. Some suggest that Jesus of Nazareth was an Essene, and that Christianity evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols.

John the Baptist, by Carvaggio
(larger image)

Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. It may be argued that he regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life (Vita Cont. I.1).

Several new religious movements claim spiritual descent from the ancient Essenes and describe themselves as Essenes. These groups believe that the canon of the Bible, and even some translations of books considered "canonical," were changed by various hands to censor Essene beliefs in the scriptures, such as transmigration, the feminine aspect of Divinity and a preference for vegetarianism. The Dead Sea Scrolls form the basis for much of their beliefs.

Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars.

Golb, for instance, uses strong arguments defending that primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux, from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific method, originating wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon. For Golb, the amount of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calygraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military basis on a very long period of time – including century I – so that they could not be inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just 50 metres east of the Qumran ruins was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children – Plinius clearly wrote that "the Essenes that lived near the Dead Sea had no women, had renounced to any sexual desire and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents sharp observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their unargued acceptance in general academic community. He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions.

Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. It may be argued that he regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life.

One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggested the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest".

Connections with Kabbalah

Modern and contemporary Essenes

Currently there are several modern Essene Groups around the world.

References

• Hillel Newman, Ph.D Bar Ilan University : Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period Brill ISBN 9004146997
• Ilani, Ofri (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Haaretz. Retrieved on 17 March 2009.
• McGirk, Tim (16 March 2009). "Scholar Claims Dead Sea Scrolls 'Authors' Never Existed". Time. Retrieved on 17 March 2009.
• «Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119-161
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11 & 18-22[11]
• Josephus (97c. 97). The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10-11
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119
• «Philo (20-54c. 20-54). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75-87
• «Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1-18[6]. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII
• Philo (20-54c. 20-54). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75
• Pliny the Elder (77c. 77[7]). Natural History. 5.73.
• Barthélemy, D.; J. T. Milik, Roland de Vaux, G. M. Crowfoot, Harold Plenderleith, George L. Harding (1997) [1955]. "Introductory: The Discovery". Qumran Cave 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-19-826301-5.
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119, 158, 160
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.171-2
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.298
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145
• «Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.311
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.372
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.373
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.378
• «Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11[11]
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18
• Josephus (97c. 97). The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. I.78
• «Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.113
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371
• «Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346
• «Pliny the Elder (77c. 77). Natural History. XII.75.
• Boccaccini, Gabriele (1998). Beyond the Essene hypothesis: the parting of the ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 47. ISBN 0-8028-4360-3. OCLC 37837643.
• Goranson, Stephen (1999). "Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts". in Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam. The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment. 2. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 534–551. ISBN 90-04-11061-5. OCLC 230716707.
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124
• Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145
• cf. map of ancient Jerusalem
• «Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.160–161
• «Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.21
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.137-138
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.139–142
• Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.153-158
• Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18
• Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1875). "On Some Points Connected with the Essenes". St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations. London: Macmillan Publishers. OCLC 6150927.
• Epiphanius of Salamis (378c. 378[10]). Panarion. 1:19
• «Epiphanius of Salamis (378c. 378). Panarion. 1:18
• Golb, Norman (1996). Who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?: the search for the secret of Qumran. New York City: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80692-4. OCLC 35047608.
• Philo. De Vita Contemplativa. I.1.
• Kaplan, Aryeh (1997) [1990]. Sefer Yetzirah: The book of Creation (2nd ed.). York Beach, Maine: Red Wheel Weiser Conari. xvii. ISBN 0-87728-855-0. OCLC 36017140.
• J. Gordon Melton, The Encyclopedia of American Religions

Further reading

• Alexander, David; Pat Alexander (1983). The Lion handbook to the Bible. Tring: Lion Hudson. ISBN 0-86760-271-6.
• Baldwin, James (1995) [1963]. The fire next time. New York City: Modern Library. ISBN 0-679-60151-1.
• Bauer, Walter; Robert A. Kraft (1996) [1971]. Orthodoxy and heresy in earliest Christianity. Mifflintown, Pennsylvania: Sigler Press. ISBN 0-9623642-7-4.
• Bennett, Chris; Lynn Osburn and Judy Osburn (1995). Green gold the tree of life: marijuana in magic & religion. Frazier Park, California: Access Unlimited. ISBN 0-9629872-2-0.
• Bergmeier, Roland (1993). Die Essener-Berichte des Flavius Josephus: Quellenstudien zu den Essenertexten im Werk des judischen Historiographen. Kampen, Germany: Kok Pharos Publishing House. ISBN 90-390-0014-X.
• Bultmann, Rudolf (1987). "Significance of the Historical Jesus for the Theology of Paul". Faith and understanding. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. ISBN 0-8006-3202-8.
• Burns, Joshua Ezra (2006). "Essene Sectarianism and Social Differentiation in Judaea After 70 C.E.". Harvard Theological Review 99: 247–74. doi:10.1017/S0017816006001246.
• Durant, Will (1993). Caesar and Christ. MJF Books. ISBN 5-552-12435-9.
• Eisenman, Robert H. (1997). James, the brother of Jesus: the key to unlocking the secrets of early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York City: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-86932-5.
• Ewing, Upton Clary (1994) [1963]. The prophet of the Dead Sea scrolls: the Essenes and the Early Christians, one and the same holy people: their seven devout practices. Tree of Life Publications. ISBN 0-930852-26-5. OCLC 30358890.
• Ewing, Upton Clary (1961). The Essene Christ. New York City: Philosophical Library. OCLC 384703.
• Legge, Francis (1964). Forerunners and rivals of Christianity, from 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. New Hyde Park, New York: University Books. LCCN 64-24125. OCLC 381558.
• Golb, Norman (1995). Who wrote the Dead Sea scrolls?: the search for the secret of Qumran. New York City: Scribner. ISBN 0-02-544395-X. OCLC 31009916.
• Lewis, Harvey Spencer (1997) [1929]. Mystical Life of Jesus. San Jose, California: Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis. ISBN 0-912057-46-7. OCLC 43629126.
• Koester, Helmut (1971). "The Theological Aspects of Primitive Christian Heresy". in James McConkey Robinson. The Future of our religious past: essays in honour of Rudolf Bultmann. New York City: Harper & Row. OCLC 246558.
• Larson, Martin Alfred (1977). The story of Christian origins: or, The sources and establishment of Western religion. Washington: J.J. Binns. ISBN 0-88331-090-2. OCLC 2810217.
• Larson, Martin Alfred (1967). The Essene heritage: or, The teacher of the scrolls and the gospel Christ. New York City: Philosophical Library. OCLC 712416.
• Sanders, E. P. (1992). Judaism: practice and belief, 63 BCE-66 CE. London: SCM Press. ISBN 1-56338-015-3. OCLC 243725142.
• Savoy, Gene (1980) [1978]. The Essaei Document: Secrets of an Eternal Race : Codicil to The Decoded New Testament. Reno, Nevada: International Community of Christ. ISBN 0-93620-203-3. OCLC 13952564.
• Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1991). From text to tradition: a history of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. New York City: Ktav Pub. House. ISBN 0-88125-372-3. OCLC 23733614.
• Schonfield, Hugh J. (1984). The Essene Odyssey: The Mystery of the True Teacher and the Essene Impact on the Shaping of Human Destiny. Tisbury: Element Books. ISBN 0-906540-49-6. OCLC 12223220.
• Schonfield, Hugh J. (1991) [1968]. Those Incredible Christians. Tisbury: Element Books. ISBN 0-906540-71-2. OCLC 13536522.
• Shaw, George Bernard (2004) [1912]. Androcles and The Lion. Fairfield, Iowa: 1st World Library - Literary Society. ISBN 1-59540-237-3. OCLC 63203922.
• Smith, Enid S. (October 1959). "The Essenes Who Changed Churchianity". Rays from the Rose Cross.
• Szekely, Edmund Bordeaux (1977). The Essene Gospel of peace. The Aramaic and old Slavonic texts. Rutland, Vt: Academy Books. ISBN 0-89564-000-7.
• Vaclavik, Charles P. (1986). The vegetarianism of Jesus Christ. Three Rivers, California: Kaweah Publishing Company. ISBN 0-945146-00-0. OCLC 26054343.

See Also

• House of Hillel
• House of Shammai