Most Christians classify the Eucharist as a sacrament. Some Protestants view it as an ordinance in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Messianic believers, classified as Christians by Rabbinic Jews but believing in Torah observance, do not practice a Eucharist rite and believe Yeshua (Hebrew for "Jesus") (see Yeshua HaMashiach), as they call him was only performing a Passover seder.

Names for the Eucharist

The Lord's Supper and the Breaking of Bread are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 20:7) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. The first of these terms tends to be preferred by "minimalist" traditions, especially those strongly influenced by Huldrych Zwingli and the Restoration Movement. The Lord's Supper is also a common term among Lutherans, as is The Sacrament of the Altar. Other Churches and denominations also use these terms, but generally not as their basic, routine term. The use is predominant among Baptist groups, who generally avoid the use of the term Communion due to its use by the Roman Catholic Church. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible) the term The Sacrament is used.

Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. The Divine Liturgy is used by Orthodox and the Eastern Catholic Churches, who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use the Divine Mysteries. Roman Catholics use many other terms, including the Mass, Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, and the Holy Mysteries. The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the Church tabernacle. "Mass" is also used by Anglo-Catholics and the Church of Sweden.

Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist such as "Lord's Supper" (Coena Domini), "Table of the Lord" (Mensa Domini), the "Lord's Body" (Corpus Domini), and the "Holy of Holies" (Sanctissimum), and "the Breaking of the Bread." The following terms are also related, directly or indirectly, to the celebration of the Eucharist: Agape (Love-Feast), Eulogia (Blessing), and Synaxis (Assembly).

Eucharist in the Bible

One writer has argued that the Book of Revelation used the Eucharistic liturgy of the early Church (with its portrayal of doctrines of the incarnation, paschal sacrifice, and second coming) to describe the heavenly liturgy.

Physical elements used in celebrating the Eucharist

There have been disputes whether the bread should be leavened or unleavened. Christians who use unleavened bread recognize that the leavened bread of other traditions is equally valid matter for the confection of the Eucharist; but some who use leavened bread consider that the use of unleavened is illegitimate. (See Azymite.) The Synoptic Gospels state that the Last Supper was celebrated on "the first day of the feast of unleavened bread." As the name of this seven-day feast indicates, only unleavened bread was eaten and leaven was not even allowed within the house. The Synoptic account thus suggests that the bread used at the Last Supper was unleavened. On the other hand, the Gospel of John says the Supper occurred "before the feast of the passover", and some interpret as significant the fact that the Synoptics use the generic word for bread, ἄρτος (artos), which they see as referring specifically to leavened bread, to speak of the bread used at the Supper rather than the adjectival term ἄζυμος (azymos), "unleavened" (bread), that they used when speaking of the feast a few verses earlier.

Those who use leavened bread see the leaven as a symbol of resurrection and new life, and concomitantly associate its lack with mourning. Those who use unleavened bread see it as a symbol of sincerity and truth, and freedom from sin, and of the typology of the Passover, of which Christ was the fulfilment. Appropriate symbolism can thus be found in both leavened and unleavened bread.

Since the nineteenth century, some Christians celebrate the Eucharist with grape juice instead of wine. The word οἶνος (oinos), meaning "wine", is not used in the New Testament of the contents of the cup Jesus used at the Last Supper. The only phrase used to indicate its contents is "γένημα τῆς ἀμπέλου" (genema tes ampelou), meaning "fruit, or produce, of the vine". While some conclude that the three evangelists who used this phrase, rather than the word "wine", did so to indicate that the cup contained what we would call grape juice, others see the phrase only as a poetic description of wine, which was then and is still traditionally used as an essential element at the Passover meal, like unleavened bread. "Fruit of the vine" was in fact the consecrated expression by which Jews designated the wine partaken of on sacred occasions, as at the Passover and on the evening of the Sabbath. If the evangelists had wished to indicate that the cup contained must (unfermented natural grape juice), they could simply have used the Greek word for it, τρύξ, which does not appear anywhere in the New Testament.

Christian theology

Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (BEM) through the World Council of Churches, which included the Roman Catholic Church.

Roman Catholic Church

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained priest (either bishop or presbyter) acting in the person of Christ (in persona Christi). In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the host) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says, "The body of Christ," when administering the host, and, "The blood of Christ," when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.

"The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which patristic writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "transubstantiation" in the Eleventh Century. It seems that the first text in which the term appears is of Gilbert of Savardin, Archbishop of Tours, in a sermon from 1079 (PL CLXXI 776). The theological explanation based on the Aristotles' hylemorphic theory of reality didn't appear until the Thirteenth Century, with Alexander of Hales (died 1245). The term first appeared in a papal document in the letter "Cum Marthae circa" to a certain John, Archbishop of Lyons, 29 November 1202, then in the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)and afterward in the book "Iam dudum" sent to the Armenians in the year 1341.

The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns what is changed, not how the change occurs, is given in the following words of the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent, quoted in paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."

Though this change is ultimately a mystery that can never be fully explained or understood, in the judgment of the Catholic Church, the term "transubstantiation," with its accompanying unambiguous distinction between "substance" or underlying reality, and "accidents" or humanly perceptible appearances, still best safeguards against the opposite extremes of a cannibalistic interpretation (the accidents remain real, not an illusion) or of a merely symbolic interpretation (the substance is changed from that of bread and wine to that of the body and blood of Christ) of the Eucharist.

Holy Communion may be given to Catholics who wish to receive either during Mass (the Eucharist) or outside of Mass; this is called the administration of Holy Communion. When it is given during Mass, it may be given under one kind (usually the consecrated bread, referred to as the host), or under both kinds (both the host and the consecrated wine, referred to by Catholics as the Precious Blood). Regular use of Communion under both kinds requires the permission of the bishop, but bishops in some countries have given blanket permission to administer Holy Communion in this way. The ordinary ministers of Holy Communion are Bishops, Priests and Deacons, the latter traditionally ministering the chalice. Members of the laity may also be commissioned as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion when it is deemed to be necessary, and the practice has been widespread for many years.

Since Holy Communion may be received under one kind (the Sacred Host alone), or under both kinds (both the Sacred Host and the Precious Blood), a coeliac may freely receive Christ in Communion under the form of wine alone, and an alcoholic under the form of bread alone.

"Holy Communion has a fuller form as a sign when it is distributed under both kinds. For in this form the sign of the Eucharistic banquet is more clearly evident and clear expression is given to the divine will by which the new and eternal Covenant is ratified in the Blood of the Lord, as also the relationship between the Eucharistic banquet and the eschatological banquet in the Father's Kingdom…. (However,) Christ, whole and entire, and the true Sacrament, is received even under only one species, and consequently that as far as the effects are concerned, those who receive under only one species are not deprived of any of the grace that is necessary for salvation" (General Instruction of the Roman MissalPDF (218 KiB), 281-282).

The hosts are kept in a tabernacle after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick or dying during the week, and also that Jesus, present in the Eucharist, may be worshipped and adored. Occasionally, the Eucharist is exposed in a monstrance, so that it may be the focus of prayer and adoration.

Eastern Christianity

true sacrifice and objective presence but pious silence on the particulars

The holy gifts reserved for the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on Holy Thursday, and are not simply leftovers from the Divine Liturgy. They are kept in an elaborately decorated tabernacle, which is a container placed on the altar and is often in the shape of a church. Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among more Latinised Eastern Catholics and those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a Western Rite.

Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with opinion

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly Anglo-Catholics), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or Evangelical Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand which affirm transubstantiation, or on the other hand, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether. The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by John Donne (sometimes attributed to Elizabeth I):

• He was the Word that spake it;
• He took the bread and brake it;
• and what that Word did make it;
• I do believe and take it.

Lutherans—the sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms"

In the Lutheran Book of Concord, Apology XXIV.1 it is asserted that among Lutherans Holy Communion is celebrated weekly: "In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other festivals, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved." This was their response to those who accused them of abolishing the eucharist. Strict adherence to this assertion varies in present day Lutheranism.

Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (cf. Augsburg Confession, Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the sacramental union." A detailed defense of and an agreement concerning this doctrine was the subject of the Wittenberg Concord of 1536. It has been called "consubstantiation" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was articulated in the Wittenberg Concord's formula: Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed the reservation of the consecrated elements (also known as the reserve host), private masses, Eucharistic adoration, and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans.

A variety of practices exist regarding the handling of bread and wine that remain after the communion service. In high church congregations, the practice tends to be similar to that of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions -- the host is stored in a place of honor such as a tabernacle, consumed by those leading the service or (in the case of wine) poured into the earth. In less formal congregations, the elements receive no special treatment. They may be used again for another service or the remaining bread may be taken home and eaten by those in attendance.

Most Lutheran congregations have some mechanism to provide communion to those who are too ill or infirm to receive the sacrament at worship services. A pastor or a congregational member who is "called" for this role may consecrate the bread in the presence of the person being visited. Some congregations also send individuals or families directly from the communion service to deliver the elements to the ill or home-bound.

Lutherans use the terms "in, with and under the forms of [consecrated] bread and wine" and "sacramental union" to distinguish their understanding of the Lord's Supper from those of the Reformed and other traditions. More liberal Lutheran churches tend to practice open communion, inviting all who are baptized to participate. Conservative Lutheran churches are more likely to practice closed communion (or "close communion"), restricting participation to those, who are in doctrinal agreement with them. This might involve the formal declaration of "altar and pulpit fellowship," another term for Eucharistic sharing coupled with the acceptance of the ministrations of one another's clergy. (Some argue that this is not simply a matter of liberal and conservative, but is complicated by high church and low church understandings of authority and ontology.)

Methodism—Real Presence as "Holy Mystery"

According to the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church,

• A United Methodist Elder presides at the Eucharist“ The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another, but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death; insomuch that, to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ; and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ.
• Transubstantiation, or the change of the substance of bread and wine in the Supper of our Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions.
• The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper, only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith.
• The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshiped.

“ Holy Communion is remembrance, commemoration, and memorial, but this remembrance is much more than simply intellectual recalling. "Do this in remembrance of me" (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25) is anamnesis (the biblical Greek word). This dynamic action becomes re-presentation of past gracious acts of God in the present, so powerfully as to make them truly present now. Christ is risen and is alive here and now, not just remembered for what was done in the past. ”

Pour out your Holy Spirit on us gathered here, and on these gifts of bread and wine. Make them be for us the body and blood of Christ, that we may be for the world the body of Christ, redeemed by his blood. ”

For most United Methodists—and, indeed, for much of Methodism as a whole—this reflects the furthest extent to which they are willing to go in defining Real Presence. They will assert that Jesus is really present, and that the means of this presence is a "Holy Mystery"; the celebrating minister will pray for the Holy Spirit to make the elements "be the body and blood of Christ," and the congregation will even sing, as in the third stanza of Charles Wesley's hymn Come Sinners to the Gospel Feast:

Come and partake the gospel feast,
Be saved from sin, in Jesus rest;
O taste the goodness of our God,
and eat his flesh and drink his blood.

“ The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christians alike. ”

Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, "pneumatic" presence

Following a phrase of Augustine, the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith." "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony (or reused in later services); they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.

Latter Day Saint movement

The Sacrament is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus Christ, and a plea for forgiveness of sins.

Like most Restorationist sects of Christianity, Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible) choose to use water instead of wine following the Doctrine and Covenants where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins." (see D&C 27:2)

Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the Spiritual feeding idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

The successor of Zwingli in Zurich, Heinrich Bullinger, came to an agreement theologically with John Calvin. The Consensus Tigurinus lays out an explanation of the doctrine of the Sacraments in general, and specifically, that of Holy Communion, as the view embraced by John Calvin and leaders of the Church of Zurich who followed Zwingli. It demonstrates that at least the successors of Zwingli held to the real spiritual presence view most commonly attributed to Calvin and Reformed Protestantism.

Summary of views

Transubstantiation – the substance (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the accidents (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is that taught by the Roman Catholic Church and by the Eastern Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, and is held by many Anglicans, especially in Anglo-Catholic circles.

"In, with and under the forms"—the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most Lutherans, and some Anglicans. Lutherans and non-Lutherans refer to this view as 'consubstantiation'. Although, for some, this term is difficult to understand, it remains the confessed understanding of the Lutheran faith. Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities—the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Catholic Churches) and the Assyrian Church of the East as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, and having historically employed the "substance" and "accidents" terminology to explain what is changed in the transformation, usually avoid this terminology, lest they seem to scrutize the technicalities of the manner in which the transformation occurs.

Real Spiritual presence also called "pneumatic presence"—not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real") are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical presence" view, and is held by most Reformed Christians, such as Presbyterians, as well as some Methodists and some Anglicans, particularly Low Church Reformed Anglicans. See Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 29. This understanding is often called "receptionism." Some argue that this view can be seen as being suggested—though not by any means clearly—by the "invocation" of the Anglican Rite as found in the American Book of Common Prayer, 1928 and earlier and in Rite I of the American BCP of 1979 as well as in other Anglican formularies:

And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify, with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine; that we, receiving them according to thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed body and blood. Symbolism—the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and Zwinglianism after Ulrich Zwingli and is held by several Protestant and Latter-day Saint denominations, including most Baptists.

Suspension—the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as adeipnonism, meaning "no supper" or "no meal"). This is the view of Quakers and the Salvation Army, as well as the hyperdispensationalist positions of E. W. Bullinger, Cornelius R. Stam, and others.

Ritual and liturgy

The Agape feast

This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22). The Eucharist proper was detached from the Agape meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the Agape was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the 18th century, Pietist Christians began to hold Love Feasts that looked back to the ancient Agape. Many Christians today after celebrating the Eucharist or another liturgy, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape. This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called "fellowship hour" or "coffee hour" and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education.

Today some contemporary Christians participate in Agape meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the House Church movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper—a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine.

Eastern Christianity

Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to occur at the Epiklesis (Greek: "invocation") by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.

Anglican

Lutheran

Reformed/Presbyterian

Baptist

Latter Day Saint movement

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible) the word "ordinance" is used approximately as the word Sacrament is used in Christianity in general.

In the Community of Christ, the word "sacrament" is also used in the more common, generic sense used by most of Christianity, meaning a rite or "ordinance."

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) (note that Mormonism deviates from biblical, historical Christian beliefs and their bible and teachings do not correspond to the canonical Christian bible), The Sacrament is performed on a weekly basis during Sacrament meeting with exceptions arising during General and Stake conferences). As most males in the Church age 16 years and older are able to perform the ordinance, it is common for wards to send men to the homes of sick (usually homebound) members of the congregation, and administer the sacrament to them. Also, fathers of families occasionally perform it with their families during times of illness or travel, but this requires the approval of the bishop, as it should not replace the regular attendance of congregation meetings.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only a small minority, called the "anointed," can partake of the bread and wine. (see Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Salvation) Those who actually partake are generally considered to be among the "anointed," though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error.

The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry, such as door-to-door work. A suitable hall, for example a Kingdom Hall, is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are "anointed" partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer.

It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.

Open and closed communion

The ancient Churches, such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g. for non-members in danger of death who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative Protestant communities also practice closed communion, including conservative Lutheran Churches like the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod practices "close" communion, which means that while membership in a Lutheran church is expected, individual pastors may use their discretion, meaning that many LC-MS churches have a more relaxed attitude. The Mennonites and the Landmark Baptist Churches also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most Protestant communities practice open communion, including some Anglican, Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and more-liberal Lutherans (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Church of Sweden). Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls all of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many Churches that practice open communion offer it only to baptized Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.

Theories about Greco-Roman pre-Christian connection

Others have expanded on Harris's theory by declaring that an idea of theophagy (eating one's god), or at least of feeding on the life-force of a mystical entity, was characteristic of the central rites of some Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern mystery religions and claiming that the acts and ordinances of Jesus and his apostles were "memorialized" in that context. According to them, the Eucharist conveyed the purported mystical benefits of flesh-eating and blood-drinking that were proclaimed by the proponents of animal sacrifices and of cannibalism, and can be seen to translate the vestiges of ancient animal sacrifice and/or ritualistic cannibalism into the current age.

Another theory that attributes a pre-Christian connection to the Eucharist has been suggested by John Allegro and Carl Ruck. They claim that Jesus was seen as a vegetation god incarnated, like Dionysus and Osiris, not as a human but as an entheogenic plant or fungus or both.

All these theories make light of the fact that Christianity did not begin among people who believed in or practiced the rites of the mystery religions. The first Christians were either Jews or "the God-fearing" (Gentiles who attended Jewish synagogue services but held back from becoming proselytes [cf. Acts 13:16, 13:26]). And, as can be seen, for instance, in 2 Corinthians 6:14-18 and Wisdom 13, Jews of the time had a very negative attitude to forms of worship other than Jewish. Josephus too describes first-century Jews as noted for their fierce monotheism and readiness to die rather than worship pagan gods. Paul's 57 AD First Letter to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 11:20-29), written less than thirty years after the death of Jesus, and the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 2:42, 2:46) present the rite of "the Lord's supper" or "the breaking of bread" as dating from the very beginning of Christianity, when Christianity was still an entirely Jewish phenomenon. While, by the time that Paul wrote this letter, Christianity was beginning to spread among people of whom some may possibly have been adherents of mystery cults and may thus conceivably have attached to the Eucharistic rite meanings not originally associated with it, the rite did not originate among them. Instead, as indicated in these writings, which are the earliest evidence about it, the Eucharist had already for a quarter of a century been practiced as what has been called "a unique form of Table fellowship" by which the earliest Christians, who were, all of them, Jews, reenacted something that Jesus did and said at his last supper.

The Bacchae, the play by the Athenian tragedian Euripides to which Harris appealed for support for his ideas, speaks of bread and wine as basic gifts to humanity from the Greek gods Demeter and Dionysus. In his very loose translation of this play Michael Cacoyannis instead presents these two gifts as means for entering into communion with the divine:

Next came the son of the virgin, Dionysus.
bringing the counterpart to bread, wine
and the blessings of life's flowing juices.
His blood, the blood of grape,
lightens the burden of our mortal misery..
it is his blood we pour out
to offer Thanks to the Gods. And through him.
we are blessed.

For mankind, young man, two elements hold the first place.
The goddess Demeter—that is the soil, whatever name you may wish to call it -
this gives solid nourishment to human beings.
A later arrival, the son of Semele, invented and introduced to mortals
the corresponding liquid drink of the grape-bunch.
It relieves the grief of wretched human beings,
when they are replenished with what flows from the vine.
It bestows sleep, oblivion of each day's troubles.
No other remedy is there for woes.
This, having become a god itself, is poured in libation to the gods,
with the result that it is through it that men have benefits.