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 A modern reconstruction of a
Roman centurion around AD 70 , with complements ranging from 5000-6000 men in the republican period of Rome, to the fairly standard number of around 5,400 in the early and middle imperial period and finally to on average 1000-2000 men in the very late imperial period. As legions were not standing armies until the Marian reforms (c. 107 BC), and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred Legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified. In the time of the Early Roman Empire, there were usually about 28 standing Legions plus their Auxiliaries, with more raised as needed.
Due to the enormous military successes of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire the legion has long been regarded as the prime ancient model for military efficiency and ability.
History
Early history
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 English: The Roman Empire in 125 under
emperor Hadrian. Own work by author
(Andrei nacu). NOTE: Barbarian names
and locations as in the works of
Tacitus (written ca. 100 AD).
(larger image)Originally, in the time of the Kings, the legio ("conscription") was the whole Roman army, composed of levied citizens. Much of Roman history of this era is founded on legends, but it is believed that during the reign of Servius Tullius, all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were first divided into five classes for military service based on wealth, since soldiers provided their own weapons and equipment.
- Legio V Macedonica
Legio V Macedonica ("Macedonian") was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Octavian in 43 BC, and it existed in Moesia at least until 5th century. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well. The cognomen Macedonica comes from the fact that the legion was stationed in Macedonia  for a period of its life.
- Legio XII Fulminata
Legio XII Fulminata ("wielder of the thunderbolt"), also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a Roman legion, levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC. The unit was still guarding the Euphrates River crossing near Melitene at the beginning of the 5th century. The legion's emblem was a thunderbolt (fulmen).
- Legio XV Apollinaris
Legio XV Apollinaris ("devoted to Apollo") was a Roman legion. It was recruited by Octavian in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals.
- Legio X Fretensis
Legio X Fretensis (Latin: "Tenth legion of the sea strait") was a Roman legion levied by Caesar Augustus in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of civil war that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic.
These classes were further organized into units of 100 called Centuries.
At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic after the kings were overthrown, the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two Consuls. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated in raids, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at one time. Legions become organized in a more formal way in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions.
In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular army (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide a legion to support each Roman legion.
Mid-Republic
The military tribunes appeared after 331 BC (at first these tribunes took turns as the legion's commanding officer). The internal organization of the legion became more sophisticated, from the classic phalanx to the manipular system, and allowed important tactical innovations. For the first time, the classes of soldiers who comprised the legions was based on experience and age rather than wealth, with standard weapons and equipment issued by the state. (The exception was the Equites, who comprised the cavalry elements and still provided their own horses).
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
- Equites (cavalry): The cavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman upstarts displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more javelins. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of circa 3000 men, the legion had only around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions. Allied legions were required to have 600 horsemen. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in the hastati or the equites; In battle, they were used to disrupt and outflank enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and agility in a time before stirrups.[1]
- Velites (light infantry): The velites were basically javelin throwers who did not have a precise formal organization or function in battle, being used where there was need for them. Normally they would deploy in front of the legion and try to break up the enemy formation, though this rarely accomplished much. After throwing their javelins they would retreat through the gaps between the maniples;
- Heavy Infantry: This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of an iron helmet, shield, armour and short spear (pilum). The preferred weapon was the gladius, a short sword. The heavy infantry was subdivided, according to the legionaries' experience in the Republican Legion prior to the Marian reforms, which abolished the separate classes of troops turning the legion into a professional force, into three separate lines:
- The hastati (singular hastatus) were the younger ones and formed the front line
- The principes (singular princeps), men in their prime ages (late twenties to early thirties), composed the second line of the legion
- The triarii (singular triarius) were the veteran soldiers that occupied the rear; only in extreme situations would they be used in battle. They were equipped with spears rather than the pilum and gladius.
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 Æ Aes Grave Quincunx, bronze coins, minted in Rome after 220 BC.
(larger image)During deployment, the maniples were commonly arranged in a chequered formation called quincunx. However, it is unlikely that they entered battle in this way. Principes maniples would cover the open space left by the hastati, and be covered in return by triarii maniples. The two centuries of each maniple were formed up one behind the other. After the velites had retreated through the 'Hastati', the 'posterior' century would march to the left and then forward so that they presented a solid line. Then the Hastati would charge. If they were losing the fight, the 'posterior' century returned to its position creating gaps again. Then the maniples would fall back through the gaps in the 'Principes', who followed the same procedure to form a battle line and charge. If the Principes could not break the enemy, they would retreat behind the 'Triarii' and the whole army would leave the battlefield in good order. This is only standard procedure and was often modified; at Zama, Scipio deployed his entire legion in a single line to envelop Hannibal's army just as Hannibal had done at Cannae.
Marian reforms
Previously ephemeral in form, at the end of the 2nd century BC Marius reformed the legions to be a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens. However this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather than Rome itself.
The Cohort legions of the late republic and early empire are often called Marian legions. Following the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC, Marius granted all Italian soldiers Roman citizenship. He justified this action to the Senate by saying in the din of battle he could not distinguish Roman from ally. This effectively eliminated the notion of allied legions, henceforth all Italian legions would be regarded as Roman legions. Thus the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type of Legionary based on the Principes.
The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied/auxiliary troops, called Auxilia. Each Legion had a same size or near same size Auxilia (auxiliary), which contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and siege craftsmen, service and support units plus units made up of non-citizens (who were granted Roman citizenship upon discharge) and undesirables. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites, and laborers. There was also a reconnaissance squad of 10 or more light, mounted infantry called Speculatores who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service.
During these reforms, the Legions were also organized into permanent cohorts for the first time. Prior to this cohorts had been temporary administrative units or tactical task forces of several maniples, even more transitory than that of the legions of the early republic themselves. Now the cohorts were six to ten permanent units, composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write. These came to form the basic tactical unit of the legions. The senior centurion of the legion was called the primus pilus, a career soldier and advisor to the legate.
Every legion had a baggage train of 500–550 mules, or about 1 mule for every 10 legionaries. To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large, Marius had each man carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations or about 50–60 pounds of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a forked stick to carry their loads on their shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules due to the amount of gear they had to carry themselves.
A typical legion of this period had around 4,000–5,000 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 6,000 fighting men divided among several cohorts, although much later in Roman history the number was reduced to 1,000 to allow for greater mobility. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign; Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.
Late Republic and early Empire
After the Marian reforms, and throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC the threat of the Legions under a demagogue was recognized. Governors could not leave their provinces with their Legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Caesar Augustus in 27 BC.
For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions from the nearly 50 present at the end of his war against Mark Antony to only 25. Generals during the recent Republican civil wars had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. When these wars ended, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio X's for instance). As well as streamlining the army and regulating the soldiers' pay, he corrected this numbering anomaly. During this time, there was a high incidence of Gemina (twins) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organization.
At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent navy.
High empire
Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions. With each legion having 4,000–6000 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops, the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from 8,000–12,000, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to be larger. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15–16,000 or about the size of a modern division.
Throughout the imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for an usurper or take it away. An example is the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors, decided in the moment that the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian.
In the empire, the legion was standardized, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a legate (legatus) or legatus. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes — five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Roman Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers and the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) as well as other specialists such as priests and musicians.
Locations of the Roman legions in 80
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 Locations of Roman legions, 80.
(larger image)
Quincunx disposition of the maniples
(larger image)
- The hastati (singular hastatus) were the younger ones and formed the front line
- The principes (singular princeps), men in their prime ages (late twenties to early thirties), composed the second line of the legion
- The triarii (singular triarius) were the veteran soldiers that occupied the rear; only in extreme situations would they be used in battle. They were equipped with spears rather than the pilum and gladius.
- Legio IX Hispana: York
Legio nona Hispana (Ninth Hispanic Legion)[7] was a Roman legion. While the legion's standard is unknown, it was likely a bull, which was used by other legions created by Julius Caesar.
- Legio XX Valeria Victrix and Legio II Adiutrix: Chester
Legio vigesima Valeria Victrix (Twentieth Victorious Valerian Legion) was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. It served in Hispania, Illyricum, and Germania before participating in the invasion of Britannia in 43 AD, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century. The emblem of the legion was a boar.
Valeria in east-central Europe was a part of Illyricum when the legion was stationed there. The legion won its title from victories in this region while campaigning in the Marcomannic Wars. (Later, in the year 296, Valeria became a separate Province.)
- Legio II Augusta: Caerleon
Legio secunda Augusta (Second Augustan Legion), was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in 4th century. Its emblems were the Capricornus[8], Pegasus[9] and Mars.
- Legio XXII Primigenia and Legio X Gemina: Nijmegen
Legio XXII Primigenia (Latin for "Twenty-second legion Primigenia", dedicated to the goddess Fortuna Primigenia) was a Roman legion levied by Roman Emperor Caligula in 39, for his campaigns in Germania. There are still records of the XXII Primigenia in Mogontiacum (modern Mainz) from the end of 3rd century. The legion's symbols were a Capricorn[10] and the demigod Hercules.
- Legio VI Victrix: Neuss
Legio sexta Victrix (Sixth Victorious Legion) was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion.
The legion saw its first action in Perusia in 41 BC. It also served against the Sextus Pompeius, who occupied Sicily and made threats to discontinue sending grain to Rome. In 31 BC the legion fought in the Battle of Actium against Mark Antony. The next year it was stationed in Hispania Tarraconensis, where it helped in Augustus' major war against the Cantabrians, which lasted from 25-13 BC.
- Legio XXI Rapax: Bonn
Legio XXI Rapax (Latin for "Twenty-first legion Predator") was a Roman legion levied in 31 BC by Augustus, probably from men previously enlisted in other legions. The XXI Rapax was destroyed in 92 by the Dacians and Sarmatians. The symbol of the legion was a capricorn[10].
Augustus probably sent his new XXIst legion to Hispania Tarraconensis to fight the campaign against the Cantabrians. XXI Rapax was one of the five legions used by Drusus to suppress the rebellion of the Raetians, in 16-15 BC. From 15 BC, the legion was stationed in Castra Regina (Regensburg), in the new province of Raetia.
- Legio XIV Gemina: Mainz
Legio quarta decima Gemina (Fourteenth Twin Legion) was a legion of the Roman Empire, levied by Octavian after 41 BC. The cognomen Gemina (twin in Latin) suggests that the legion resulted from fusion of two previous ones, one of them possibly being the Fourteenth legion that fought in the Battle of Alesia. Martia Victrix (martial victory) were cognomens added by Nero following the victory over Boudica. The emblem of the legion was the Capricorn[10], as with many of the legions levied by Augustus.[10], or the crossed thunderbolts of Jupiter,
- Legio I Adiutrix: near Mainz
Legio prima Adiutrix (First Rescuer legion), was a Roman legion formed in 68, possibly by Galba under orders of Nero. The last record mentioning the Adiutrix is in 344, when it was stationed at Brigetio (modern Szöny), in the Roman province of Pannonia. The emblem of the legion was a capricorn[10], used along with the winged horse Pegasus, on the helmets the symbol used by I Adiutrix legionaries was a dolphin[11].
- Legio VIII Augusta: Strasbourg
Legio octava Augusta (Eighth Augustan Legion) was a Roman legion created by Pompey in 65 BC, along with the 6th, 7th & 9th, and continuing in service to Rome for at least 400 years thereafter. [12].
They were ordered to Cisalpine Gaul around 58 BC by Julius Caesar, and marched with him throughout the entire Gallic Wars. In 49, at the very beginning of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, the Eighth Legion accompanied Caesar across the Rubicon into Italy. By the end, they stood against him at the Battle of Pharsalus. The legion was also present in Egypt, when Caesar captured Egypt for Cleopatra. In 46 BC the legion took part in the Battle of Thapsus (modern Tunisia), shortly before their disbandment.
- Legio XI Claudia: Vindonissa
Legio undecima Claudia (Eleventh Claudian legion) was a Roman legion. XI Claudia dates back to the two legions (the other was the XIIth) recruited by Julius Caesar to invade Gallia in 58 BC, and it existed at least until early 5th century, guarding lower Danube in Durostorum (modern Silistra, Bulgaria). The emblem of this legion is not recorded; it could have been, as well as of all Caesar's legions, the bull, possibly the she-wolf lactating the twins.
- Legio XV Apollinaris: Carnuntum
Legio quinta decima Apollinaris (Fifteenth Apollonian Legion) was a Roman legion. It was recruited by Octavian in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals.
XV Apollinaris is sometimes confused with two other legions with the same number: An earlier unit which was commanded by Julius Caesar and met its end in North Africa in 49 BC, and a later unit that was present at the Battle of Philippi on the side of the Second Triumvirate and then sent east.
- Legio XIII Gemina: Poetovio
Legio tertia decima Gemina (Thirteenth Twin Legion), is one of the more historically remarkable Roman legions. It was one of Julius Caesar's key units in Gaul, and in the civil war, and was the legion with which he famously crossed the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. The legion appears to have still been in existence in the 5th century; its symbol was the lion.
- Legio VII Claudia: Viminacium
Legio septima Claudia Pia Fidelis (Seventh Claudian Legion) was a Roman legion. Its emblem, as well as of all Caesar's legions, was the bull, together with the lion.
The 7th, along with the 6th, 8th & 9th were all founded by Pompey in Spain in 65 BC.[12] They were ordered to Cisalpine Gaul around 58 BC by Julius Caesar, and marched with him throughout the entire Gallic Wars.
Legio VII was one of the two legions used in Caesar's invasions of Britain, and played a crucial role in The Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, and it existed at least until the end of the 4th century, guarding middle Danube.
Tiberius Claudius Maximus the Roman soldier who brought the head of Decebalus to emperor Trajan was serving in Legio VII Claudia.
- Legio V Macedonica: Oescus (modern Gigen)
Legio quinta Macedonica (Fifth Macedonian Legion) was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Octavian in 43 BC, and it was stationed in Moesia at least until 5th century. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well. The cognomen Macedonica comes from the fact that the legion was stationed in Macedonia for a significant period of its existence.
- Legio I Italica: Novae (modern Svishtov)
Legio I Italica (Latin for "First legion Italica"; the cognomen "Italica" is a reference to the Italian origin of its first recruits) was a Roman legion levied by emperor Nero on September 22, 66 (the date is attested by an inscription). There are still records of the I Italica in the Danube border in the beginning of the 5th century. The emblem of the legion was a boar.
- Legio V Alaudae: near Danube
Legio quinta Alaudae (Fifth Larks Legion) sometimes known as Gallica, was levied by Julius Caesar in 52 BC from native Gauls. Their emblem was an elephant, and their cognomen Alaudae came from the high crest on their helmets, typical of the Gauls, which made them look like larks. The French word 'Alouette' is a direct descendant of 'Alauda', itself not a proper Latin noun, but a loan word from Gaulish, possibly the first reason for the legionary name.
V Gallica was the first Roman legion composed of provincial soldiers, as opposed to Roman citizens. Caesar paid the soldiers with his own resources, but the legion was later recognized by the Roman Senate. V Alaudae fought in the Gallic wars until 49 BC, as one of the most brave legions of Caesar, then they were moved to Spain. They served with Mark Antony between 41 and 31 BC and probably fought in Actium. After Antony committed suicide, they were merged into Augustus' army in 30 BC.
- Legio IV Flavia Felix: Burnum
Legio quarta Flavia Felix (Fourth Lucky Flavian Legion), was a Roman legion levied by Vespasian in 70, from the ashes of the Legio IIII Macedonica. The legion was active in Moesia Superior in the first half of the 4th century. The legion symbol was a lion.
During the Batavian rebellion, the IIII Macedonica fought for Vespasian, but the emperor distrusted his men, probably because they had supported Vitellius two years before. Therefore IIII Macedonica was disbanded, and a new Fourth legion, called Flavian Felix was levied by the emperor, who gave the legio his nomen, Flavia. Since the symbol of the legion is a lion, it was probably levied in July/August 70.
- Legio XVI Flavia Firma: Satala
Legio sexta decima Flavia Firma (Sixteenth Steadfast Flavian Legion) was a Roman legion. The legion was created by Emperor Vespasian in 70, with the remains of the XVI Gallica (which had surrendered in the Batavian rebellion), and still existed in the 4th century, when it guarded the Euphrates border camped in Sura (Syria). The emblem of the legion was a lion.
- Legio XII Fulminata: Melitene
Legio duodecima Fulminata (Twelfth Lightning-struck Legion), also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a Roman legion, levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC. The unit was still guarding the Euphrates River crossing near Melitene at the beginning of the 5th century. The legion's emblem was a thunderbolt (fulmen). In later centuries it came to be called commonly, but incorrectly, the Legio Fulminatrix, the Thundering Legion.
- Legio VI Ferrata: Samosata
Legio sexta Ferrata (Sixth Ironclad Legion), was a Roman Legion formed in 65 BC, and in existence up to at least 3rd century. A Legio VI fought in the Roman Republican civil wars of the 40s and 30s BC. Sent to garrison the province of Judaea, it remained there for the next two centuries.
The Legion was also known as Fidelis Constans, meaning "Loyal and Steadfast". It is unclear when this title was given, but several sources indicate that it may have been in the 1st century AD. The symbol for Legio VI Ferrata was the bull. It also carried the symbolic she-wolf with Romulus and Remus.[cita
- Legio IV Scythica: Zeugma
Legio quarta Scythica (Fourth Scythian Legion) was a Roman legion levied by Mark Antony around 42 BC, for his campaign against the Parthian Empire, hence its other cognomen, Parthica. The legion was still active in Syria in the early 5th century. The legion's symbol was a capricorn[10].
- Legio III Gallica: near Damascus
Legio tertia Gallica (Third Gallic legion) was a Roman legion levied by Julius Caesar around 49 BC, for his civil war against the conservative republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from the Gallic Roman provinces. The legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th century. The legion's symbol was a bull.
The legion took part in all Julius Caesar's campaigns against his enemies, including the battles of Pharsalus and Munda. Following Caesar's death, III Gallica was integrated in the army of Mark Antony, a member of the second triumvirate, for his campaigns against the Parthians. They were included in the army levied by Fulvia and Lucius Antonius (Antony's wife and brother) to oppose Octavian, but ended by surrendering in Perugia, in the winter of 41 BC. After the battle of Actium and Antony's suicide, the III Gallica was sent again to the East, where they garrisoned the province of Syria.
- Legio X Fretensis: Jerusalem
See Legio X Fretensis
Legio X Fretensis ("Tenth legion of the sea strait") was a Roman legion levied by Augustus in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of civil war that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic. X Fretensis is recorded to exist at least until 410s.
X Fretensis symbols were the bull, the holy animal of the goddess Venus (mythical ancestor of the gens Julia), a ship (probably a reference to the battles of Naulochus and/or Actium), the god Neptune, and a boar. The symbol of Taurus may also mean that it was organized between 20 April and 20 May.
- Legio XXII Deiotariana: Nicopolis
Legio vigesima secunda Deiotariana (Twenty-second Deiotaran Legion) was a Roman legion, levied approximately in 48 BC and disbanded during the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135. Its cognomen comes from Deiotarus, a Celtic king, and its emblem is unknown, but could be a Galatian symbol.
- Legio III Cyrenaica: Coptos
Legio tertia Cyrenaica (Third Cyrenean legion) was a Roman legion probably levied by Mark Antony around 36 BC, when he was governor of Cyrenaica. There are still records of the legion in Syria in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol is unknown.
- Legio III Augusta: Lambaesis
Legio tertia Augusta (Third Augustan Legion) was raised in the year 43 BCE most likely by the consul Gaius Vibius Pansa and the emperor Augustus who served the Roman Empire in North Africa until at least the late 4th century AD. It is possible that it fought in the battle of Philippi against the murderers of Caesar. It is probable that the Legion served Augustus while he waged war against Sextus Pompeius who threatened the grain supply from Africa to Rome. After he had won, Augustus turned on Lepidus and defeated him, winning the province of Africa in the process. The next movement of the legion is unclear but “it is certain that from 30 BCE on, the Third was permanently in Africa, although it was not always stationed in the same camp."[13] The increasing importance of the grain supply from Africa made the presence of the legion all the more important.[14] The legion suffered several wars, constant border skirmishes, rebellions, disbandment, reformation, and yet, it managed to defend Northern Africa for a period of 500 years. During this time, it was a military force but more so, it was a building and cultural force that was a major mover in the urbanization of the province.
- Legio VII Gemina: Leon
Legio septima Gemina (Seventh Twin Legion) was a Roman legion; its full name was Legio VII Gemina Felix. VII Gemina dates back to the Year of the four emperors (69), when the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, Galba, levied a legion to march on Rome. The legion was still in the city called Legio (modern León) in Hispania Tarraconensis at the end of the fourth century. The emblem of this legion is unknown.
Tacitus calls the legion "Galbiana", to distinguish it from the old Legio VII Claudia, but this appellation is not found on any inscriptions. It appears to have received the appellation of "Gemina"[1] on account of its amalgamation by Vespasian with one of the German legions, not improbably the Legio I Germanica.
After serving in Pannonia, and in the civil wars, it was settled by Vespasian in Hispania Tarraconensis, to supply the place of the Legio VI Victrix and Legio X Gemina, two of the three legions ordinarily stationed in the province, but which had been withdrawn to Germania.[2] That its regular winter quarters, under later emperors, were at Leon, we learn from the Antonine Itinerary, Ptolemy, and the Notitia Imperii, as well as from a few inscriptions;[3] but there are numerous inscriptions to prove that a strong detachment of it was stationed at Tarraco (modern Tarragona), the chief city of the province. The following are a selection, in order of time:[4]
In the inscriptions the legion has the surnames of "P. F. ANTONINIANA", "P. F. ALEXANDRIANA", and "P. F. SEVERIANA ALEXANDRIANA"; and its name occurs in a Greek inscription as ΛΕΤ. Ζ. ΔΙΔύμη,[5] while another mentions a χιλίαρχον ἐν Ἱσπανίᾳ λεγεῶνος ἑβδόμης.[6] There is an inscription in which is found a "Tribunus Militum LEG. VII. GEMINAE FELICIS IN GERMANIA", from a comparison of which with two inscriptions found in Germany,[7] it has been inferred that the legion was employed on an expedition into Germany under Alexander Severus, and that this circumstance gave rise to the erroneous designation of Γερμανική in the text of Ptolemy.[8]
The station of this legion in the Gallaecia Roman province grew into an important city that after the invasions of 409 AD in Iberia, became part of the Suevic Kingdom, which resisted the attacks of the Visigoths til 586, when it was taken by Leovigild; and it was one of the few cities which the Visigoths allowed to retain their fortifications. The Roman bridge over the Tâmega River in Chaves, Portugal, then Aquae Flaviae, was built by the stationed legionaries of the Legio VII Gemina at the time of Trajan.
Late Empire
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In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii, Joviani, Herculiani and Divitenses.
The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine Il. In addition to the elite palatinae, other Legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses, along with the auxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae, 70 legiones comitatenses, 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies[2]. Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes or from old legions.
According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' De Re Militari, each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager (or Wild Ass in Latin), giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 Ballistae and 10 Onagers each manned by 10 libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.
Legionary officers
The following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (circa 290).
Senior officers
- Dux: A general in charge of two or more legions. While the title of dux could refer to a Consul or Imperator, it usually refers to the Roman Governor of the provinces. As the Governor, the Dux was both the highest civil official as well as the commander-in-chief of the legions garrisoned within the province. This office was similar in terms of duties and responsibility to a modern brigade commander.
- Legatus legionis: The overall legionary commander. This post was generally appointed by the emperor to a man who was usually a former Tribunus Laticlavius and held command for 3 or 4 years, although could serve for a much longer period. In a Roman province with only one legion, the Legatus was also the provincial governor and in provinces with multiple legions, each legion had a Legatus and the provincial governor had overall command of them all. This office was similar to the modern battalion commander.
- Tribunus Laticlavius: Named for the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the Emperor or the Senate. Though generally quite young and less experienced than the Tribuni Angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the Legate. This office was similar to the modern deputy commanding officer or executive officer of a battalion[3].
- Praefectus Castrorum: The camp Prefect. Generally he was a long serving veteran who had been promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was 3rd in overall command.
- Tribuni Angusticlavii: Each legion had five military tribunes of equestrian (knight) class citizens. They were in many cases career officers and served many of the important administrative tasks of the Legion, but still served in a full tactical command function during engagements. This rank was similar to the modern company commander.
- Primus Pilus: The "First File" or "first spearman" was the commanding centurion of the first cohort and the senior centurion of the entire Legion. When the Primus Pilus retired he was guaranteed entry into the Equestrian Class. He was paid 60 times the base wage.
Mid-level officers
- Centurions: Each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the 10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day to day life of the soldiers as well as issuing commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the Emperor or other higher ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the First to the Tenth and the Century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only 5 Century in the First Cohort (For a total of 59 Centurions and the Primus Pilus). The Century that each Centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank. (Command of the First Century of the First Cohort was the highest and the 6th Century of the 10th Cohort was the lowest). This position is compared to a modern platoon commander. Primi Ordines: The five Centurions of the First Cohort, and included the Primus Pilus. They, excluding the Primus Pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other Centurions, save the Primus Pilus and Pilus Prior.
- The Pilus Prior: The ten Centurions of the First Centuries of each of the ten Cohorts were called Pilus Prior and were the most senior Centurion within their respective cohort. While the legion was in battle formation, the Pilus Prior was given command of the entire cohort, with each of the Centurions as his lieutenants. The Primus Pilus was also a Pilus Prior, only the most senior of all the Centurions within the Legions. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to the Primus Pilus.
The following chart[6] identifies the centurion command structure of each century, cohort and legion, including their typical battle arrangement with strongest from right to left. The bracketed name in each column signifies the actual title of that officer. For example: the Quintus Princeps Posterior was the commander of the 4th century of the 5th cohort.[6] |
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I
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II
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III
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IV
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V
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VI
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I
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(Quintus) Pilus Prior |
(Quartus) Pilus Prior |
(Tertius) Pilus Prior |
(Secundus) Pilus Prior |
Primus Pilus |
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II
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Pilus Posterior |
Pilus Posterior |
Pilus Posterior |
Pilus Posterior |
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III
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Princeps Prior |
Princeps Prior |
Princeps Prior |
Princeps Prior |
(Primus) Princeps |
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IV
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Princeps Posterior |
Princeps Posterior |
Princeps Posterior |
Princeps Posterior |
Hastatus |
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V
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Hastatus Prior |
Hastatus Prior |
Hastatus Prior |
Hastatus Prior |
Princeps Posterior |
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VI
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Hastatus Posterior |
Hastatus Posterior |
Hastatus Posterior |
Hastatus Posterior |
Hastatus Posterior |
Low-level officers
- Optio: One for each Centurion (59), they were appointed by the Centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command. Paid twice the basic wage. Equivalent to a modern Lieutenant.[4].
- Tesserarius: (Guard Commander) Again there were 59 of these, or one for each Century. They acted seconds to the Optios. Paid one and a half times the basic wage.
- Decurion: Led a Contubernium[6], or "Tent Group", of 8 to 10 men. Each Century had 8 to 10 of these. Paid one and a quarter times basic wage. This rank is similar to the modern day squad leader.
Special officers
- Aquilifer: A single position within the Legion. The Aquilifer was the Legion's Standard or Aquila (Eagle) bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the aquila was considered a great dishonor. The next step up would be in a post as a Centurion. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Signifer: Each Century had a Signifer (59). He was responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer for the Centurial Signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each individual Century would rally around. A soldier could also gain the position of Discentes signiferorum, or standard bearer in training. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Cornicen (Horn blower): Worked hand in hand with the Signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Centurial Signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers.
- Imaginifer: Carried the Standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troop's loyalty to him.
Symbols
From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself.
In 'The Gallic War' ( Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.
With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus.
Each legion, furthermore, had a vexillifer who carried a vexillum or signum, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common, for a legion, to detach some sub-units from the main camp, to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, vexillationes. A miniature vexillum , mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.
Discipline
The military discipline of the legions was quite harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted upon a legionary who broke them. Many legionaries became devotees in the cult of the minor goddess Disciplina, whose virtues of frugality, severity and loyalty were central to their code of conduct and way of life. |
 The Flagellation of Christ, Artist: Nicola Grassi, c. 1720, Oil on canvas, 105 x 159 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest
(larger image)Minor punishments
- Castigatio: being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium Reduction of rations, or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
- Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
- Whipping (see Flagellation of Christ) with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" — a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging . The "short whip" was used for slave volunteers, volones, who comprised the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
- Pecunaria multa: fines or deductions from the pay allowance
Major punishments
- Fustuarium — a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty. The legionary would be stoned, or beaten to death by cudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers, whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued, but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome.
- Decimation — a sentence carried out against an entire unit which had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men would be put to death. The rest of the men would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, the sacramentum.
Factors in the Legion's success
The Romans were able to copy and adapt the weapons and methods of its opponents more effectively. Examples include weapons like the gladius and warship design.
Roman organization was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges from cavalry, to guerrillas, to seige warfare. Roman discipline, organization and systemization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage , the Parthians and barbarian forces illustrate this. Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the gladius (Iberians) and warship design (Carthaginians), as well as military units such as heavy mounted cavalry and mounted archers (Persians).
- Roman organization was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, to siege warfare.
- Roman discipline, organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
- The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage, the Parthians and barbarian forces illustrate this.
- Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
- The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.
- Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise.
- Roman military equipment, particularly armour, was thicker and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican / Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.
- Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications, was another major advantage for the Roman Legions.
The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.
References
- History of the Art of War. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare, Hans Delbrück
- Hans Delbrück, Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte Retrieved 7/25/2010
- Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy
- History of Warfare, John Keegan
- The Roman Army and Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly
- The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.
- War, Gwynne Dyer.
- The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, Trevor N. Dupuy.
- Flavius Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari (with English translation on-line)
- Julius Caesar, The Gallic War
- William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
- The Punic Wars, Adrian Goldsworthy.
- Carnage and Culture, Victor Davis Hanson
- The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, by Arther Ferrill, 1988
- The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy
- The Military System Of The Romans, by Albert Harkness
- From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West, by Nigel Rodgers
- The Roman Army at War 100 BC - AD 200 (Oxford, September 1998) by Adrian Goldsworthy
Notes
- « Mccall, Jeremiah B. The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic. (New York, Routledge, 2002) pp. 53ff
- « Totals from summary of Notitia Dignitatum in Richardot, Philippe, La fin de l'armée romaine 284-476 [3rd ed.] Economica, 2005. ISBN 2-7178-4861-4 .
- « Birley, Anthony R. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989) p. 40
- « Caesar's Civil War, Adrian Goldsworthy, Page 20
- « Montesquieu C., Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline, Hacket, 1999, p.24
- « Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion
- « "York's Spanish connection". BBC.co.uk. 13 January 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/northyorkshire/iloveny/romans/2004/spanish_legion/index.shtml.
- « Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971-2000 By L. J. F. Keppie page 128
- « Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971-2000 By L. J. F. Keppie page 129
- « L.J.F. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971-2000, p. 128
- « L.J.F. Keppie, The Origins and Early History of the Second Augustan Legion, in L.J.F. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971-2000, Stuttgart, 2000, p. 128.
- « Caesar's Legion, Stephen Dando-Collins, 269-270
- « Livius: Articles on Ancient History.
- « Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army (New York: Hippocrene, 1994), Print.
- « Caesar B.C. iii. 3
- « Tacitus Hist. ii. 11, 67, 86, iii. 7, 10, 21-25, iv. 39; Inscr. ap. Gruter, p. 245, no. 2.
- « Muratori, p. 2037, no. 8, 130; p. 335, nos. 2, 3, 163; p. 336, no. 3, 167; Gruter, p. 260, no. 1, 216
- « Orelli, no. 3496, 182; no. 4815; Gruter, p. 365, no. 7.
- «C. I. vol. iii. no. 4022
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